2.5.4. Digital Technologies in EFL Learning and Instruction

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How specific digital technologies could be integrated into EFL learning and instruction will be discussed in three sections. The first one looks at empirical evidence of how specific programmes and tools were integrated into the learning processes and reflects on the potential learner gains. The second section is dedicated to virtual collaboration programmes, special course designs where learning constantly takes place digitally using many different forms of technology, while the third subsection discusses out-of-class EFL learning possibilities with the help of technology.
 

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2.5.4.1 Technology-based EFL Learning. It is informative to look at some specific examples of technology inclusion in the EFL classrooms. Earlier it was concluded that teacher education programmes should include hands-on opportunities for prospective teachers to try technologies even as part of their language or methodological training, and by professionally reflecting on these experiences, develop their foreign language knowledge as well as pedagogical (methodological) and technological methodological knowledge. Having applied the method of document analysis to survey how certain technologies managed to contribute to the development of learners, Table 7 was created to provide some examples to what aspects of foreign language and/or teaching methodological gains are reported in the discourse as a result of technology inclusion.
 

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Table 7 Examples of Technologies Used in University EFL Instruction and Their Effects on Learning
Technology
Source
Context
Aim
Method
Major contribution(s)
Google Documents
Ebadi & Rahimi, 2019
Irani university
academic writing skills development
mixed methods (document analysis and interviews)
Using Google Documents resulted in academic writing skills development, facilitated peer collaboration and individual problem-focused instruction.
Kahoot!
Hadijah et al., 2020
Indonesian senior high school
developing vocabulary
qualitative (interviews)
Using Kahoot! for vocabulary testing resulted in creating a learner-friendly atmosphere, but test settings had to be carefully designed so that revealing learner scores did not discourage students.
Kapsalis et al., 2020
Greek university
developing vocabulary
quantitative (pre-test post-test)
The Kahoot! and the paper-and-pencil control group did not show any statistically significant differences in mastering new vocabulary, nevertheless, scores of both groups became higher.
Yürük, 2020
Turkish university
developing pronunciation
quantitative (pre-test post-test)
Using Kahoot! to encourage students to repeat / pronounce words within a time limit resulted in significant gains in pronunciation compared to the control groups’ final scores.
Mobile dictionaries
Rahimi & Miri, 2014
Irani university
developing vocabulary
quantitative (pre-test post-test)
Using Longman’s mobile dictionary resulted in significantly higher vocabulary learning gains than using the print Longman dictionary, but mainly because using the mobile dictionary was less time-consuming, more convenient, and user-friendly for the participants.
Podcasts and
Quizlet
Bueno-Alastuey & Nemeth, 2020
(international) language school in Spain
developing vocabulary
quantitative (pre-test post-test)
The Podcasts- and Quizlet-based groups showed no systematic differences in vocabulary learning, but Podcast-group learners indicated that not all of them enjoyed recording their own voices as opposed to positive feedback received by the Quizlet-group towards creating their learning flashcards.
Quizlet
Chaikovska & Zbaravska, 2020
Ukrainian public education
developing vocabulary to pass an English state exam
quantitative (pre-test post-test)
The Quizlet-based strategy (building word banks and exercising with Quizlet) resulted in statistically significant gains in learning vocabulary compared to the control group.
TED talks
Hsu, 2020
developing reading skills and mid-frequency vocabulary learning
quantitative (corpus analysis of 2630 TED talks)
Studying from TED talk transcripts makes it possible for learners to encounter 98% of all mid-frequent (4000 to 9000 on the list of words) English words in a topic-specific, enjoyable, informative, and otherwise generally learner-friendly context.
Puspita & Amelia, 2020
Indonesian university
developing listening skills
mixed methods (learner autonomy questionnaire; pre-test, post-test; feedback questionnaire)
Using TED talks as listening exercises resulted in learning autonomy (especially learner control, motivation, criticality, and information literacy) gains. Learners also developed listening skills; the main development concerned the minimum achieved scores in the sample (pre-test: 25; post-test: 45 points), but the measured gains were not statistically significant.
Note. Based on document analysis.
 

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Even though only some examples are provided in Table 7 to illustrate how the integration of various frequent technologies affect certain areas of foreign language learning, it can be concluded that a major advantage of inclusion is that they provide alternatives for traditional instructional methods. Furthermore, in some cases, technology makes it easier to access, e.g., reading, grammar or listening skills practices (Fekete, 2017; Simon, 2016). Nonetheless, it has to be emphasised yet again that the quality of inclusion depends on many independent factors, such as learners’ or teachers’ general technology literacy, beliefs about technology inclusion, attitudes towards learning and teaching and the quality of implementation. Teaching contexts should find and use locally popular technology (Love, 2020) because certain age groups or even countries can have distinct preferences (e.g., whether to use Messenger, WhatsApp, or Viber as a medium of instruction/practice). In other cases, especially concerning learning management systems, the exact product to use is decided by the university (e.g., whether to use Microsoft Teams, or Moodle). In the studies summarized in Table 7, when learning outcomes of techno-inclusive groups were compared to control groups, the techno-inclusive groups’ scores were always higher; however, the difference between the two groups’ results were not always statistically significant. Learners of the techno-inclusive groups often reported additional gains such as learning about new technologies or the less time-consuming nature of learning due to technology. Three conclusions can be drawn from this. Using ICT alternatives in the university EFL classrooms:

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  1. results in similar or better, and sometimes even significantly better learning outcomes;
  2. makes it possible to access learning materials (especially resources such as dictionary entries, practice tasks, texts, or transcripts) easier and quicker;
  3. can provide hands-on experiences of modern technologies and ensure learners’ digital competence development as well as ensure that they (including prospective teachers) would use technologies later in their lives (and pedagogical practices) skilfully.
 

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2.5.4.2 Virtual Collaborations. In the European context, there is a growing body of literature on virtual collaboration projects funded by the Erasmus+ programme to promote social development by providing virtual project opportunities (Kozma, 2008; see Table 3 under 2.3.3). Virtual exchange (VE) projects are typically bottom-up organised cooperation projects between schools of different countries working together towards a similar goal, for example developing academic English skills of ESP learners (Kóris et al., 2020a; 2020b) or the TPACK skills of pre-service EFL teachers (Kaçar & Fekete, 2021). Virtual exchange programmes are available for more students than traditional mobility programmes because they do not require much financial investment as physical mobility does not take place (O’Dowd, 2013). VE projects require complex planning; therefore, it is encouraged to be overseen by trained facilitators. For this reason, the Erasmus programme offers free online basic and advanced training programmes where teachers are introduced to the aims, goals, rationales, and some facilitation methods of the projects (O’Dowd et al., 2020).

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VEs make it possible for learners to develop many different skills and competences in a real, problem-based collaboration project. While focus is on project goals (e.g., designing presentations together, conducting (mini) research, working on activity or lesson plans together, developing assessment tools, etc.) learners develop their foreign language knowledge, digital competences, intercultural or global competences (Lewis & O’Dowd, 2016). They may also display their digital competencies and skills for building a community (Dooly & Sadler, 2013; Kóris et al., 2020b.). In a VE project, communication, negotiation, and project outcome-related work is the responsibility of the student participants, but the processes are overseen and facilitated by their instructors. This means that throughout a VE project, learners frequently and actively keep in touch and work on all project-related issues together in the project’s lingua franca, English.

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VEs involve the use of multiple technologies in a learner-centred way. For example, a seminar group of learners from a Spanish and Hungarian university worked together in an ESP-related course to tackle common European economy-related problems between Spain and Hungary (Kóris et al., 2020a). After a socialisation and teambuilding phase, teams of fours were created (two Spanish and two Hungarian students per group) who worked together to research a sub-area of said economy-related problems (e.g., the EU’s foreign trade, common currency). The ultimate goal was to put together a final video presentation, which was played, discussed by and reflected on by peers at the end of the semester. Selected students were also asked to provide a strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis in reflection of the project. The majority of these students who were asked to provide their detailed reflections on the VE project said that they enjoyed the innovative learning experience, reported gains in foreign language knowledge and academic skills, but also mentioned some uneven workloads and much more invested time compared to if the course had been a regular university course (Kóris et al., 2020a).

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Additionally, in a Turkish-Hungarian VE project focusing on the TPACK development of pre-service EFL teachers, Kaçar and Fekete (2021) designed a course in which teams of two or three students worked together on an ICT-inclusive microteaching activity plan. In the preparatory stage of the projects, both Turkish and Hungarian students received instruction on the underpinnings of using ICT in the EFL classrooms and had the chance to try certain applications, websites and programmes in a hands-on learning environment. During this phase, the students were also engaged in teambuilding activities. After pairing or grouping learners, the teams designed their activity plans, which were peer- and instructor-evaluated. Then, the teams updated or redesigned their activity plans following the reflections, which resulted in a second, final version of the plans. At the end of the semester, learners were required to put together a reflective portfolio, which was evaluated by both instructors (Kaçar & Fekete, 2021). To illustrate the complexity of the project and the technologies used, Figure 4 details what tasks were undertaken by the instructor-facilitators and the learners of the VE project in question. Based on the analysis of the reflective portfolios and the feedback received through an anonymous feedback channel post-project, most learners reported gains in foreign language knowledge, technological-pedagogical knowledge, teaching methodological knowledge as well as expressed that they enjoyed the collaboration experience with their team members, which resulted in friendships. However, some students expressed that the project was time-consuming, and not every team could develop a friendly work atmosphere that resulted in negative attitudes towards joint work (Kaçar & Fekete, 2021).
 

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Figure 4 A Timeline Summary of the Project Phases and Key Student and Instructor Tasks of a Virtual Exchange Project
Note. Kaçar & Fekete (2021, p. 442).
 

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The above experiences signal that enrolling EFL learners in VE projects can be a fruitful experience for most learners in terms of digital competence, foreign language knowledge and global competence development. Even though instructors mainly take up facilitation roles throughout the project, their roles in developing and overseeing it is indispensable and the project has to be planned to the smallest of details. In both example studies taken partly from the Hungarian educational context (Kaçar & Fekete, 2021; Kóris et al., 2020a), it was concluded that even though a minority of participants were unable to effectively develop a good working relationship with each other, VEs proved to have been worth the time investment. Kaçar and Fekete (2021) observed that individual learners’ willingness to engage in the project clearly affected what outcomes they reported and to what extent their communicative and global competences were affected. Consequently, bearing the project gains in mind, instructors should be encouraged and supported to enrol their students in VE projects focusing on a similar problem that exists between all involved contexts (be it ESP, EFL or even teaching-related) and project facilitation should regard the project planning and the teambuilding phases as key aspects.
 

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2.5.4.3 Extramural EFL Learning With Technology. In the context of this research project, the role of technology in some out-of-class EFL learning experiences have to be addressed. There is a growing body of literature concerned with extramural EFL learning, which occurs when “the learner comes in contact with or is involved in English outside the walls of the English classroom” (Sundqvist, 2009, p. 25). Typical extramural learning activities include watching films, TV shows, series; listening to music, podcasts; reading blogs, magazines, newspapers; surfing the Internet; following people, organisations, companies via online platforms; interacting online; and playing video games (Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2016). Extramural EFL learning is used as an umbrella term (Sundqvist, 2009) that encapsulates several different out-of-classroom learning situations, including, but not limited to:

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  • learning English without any deliberation (e.g., by coming across words in TV shows or video games);
  • learning English without actively recognising it (e.g., through a conversation on the street when one is asked for directions in English);
  • learning English deliberately (e.g., listening to podcasts and collecting useful vocabulary for one’s own language (vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar) development);
  • learning English to function as part of a free-time activity (e.g., looking up vocabulary / acquiring the slang of a video game-based environment);
  • learning English because of peer pressure (e.g., to be able to discuss news or access a computer/smartphone game that peers also access, and the individual would not like to lag behind).
 

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A common feature in most extramural EFL learning occurrences is that they involve technology. Apparently, there seems to be an allegory between extramural and actual EFL learning, and digital device ownership and meaningful technology use. While there is evidence to suggest that learners prefer learning English in naturalistic, out-of-class settings (Fajt, 2021; Lajtai, 2020; Lee, 2019; Sundqvist, 2009), it is by no means ensured that every extramural opportunity would result in knowledge gains (Benson, 2013; Lajtai, 2020). Moreover, incidental gains are typical of the most frequent vocabulary only (Fajt, 2021). The same is true to digital device ownership, which does not guarantee that the owner is capable of using the devices meaningfully; showcasing modern digital competences (EU, 2015; 2016). Nevertheless, out-of-class EFL learning opportunities have inevitably been multiplied by modern technology, and such language competence development is clearly linked to ICT and technological competences on top of EFL learning gains.
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