The knowledge dimension of global competence comprises three main elements. First, it entails the knowledge of global issues. There is no universally accepted definition of what a global issue is, but it can be understood as a problem “that affect[s] all individuals regardless of their nation or social group” (OECD, 2018, p. 12). As Bhargava (2006) points out, the common features of global issues are as follows:

The third element of the knowledge dimension is the knowledge of intercultural issues, “which arise from the interaction between people of different cultural backgrounds” (OECD, 2018). As some of the global issues emerge when “ecological or socio-economic interests cross borders” (p. 12), intercultural issues can be seen either as by-products or as triggers of global issues. For instance, stereotypes, discrimination, and racism (which are intercultural issues) fuel violence and conflict, which may even lead to wars (which are considered global issues).

Most of these local, global, and intercultural issues can be considered controversial issues (CI). According to Oxfam (2006), “issues that are likely to be controversial or sensitive are those that have a political, social and personal impact and arouse feeling and/or deal with questions of value or belief “(p. 2). Controversial issues can be local or global, they tend to be complex and complicated, with no easy answers and people usually hold strong opinions about them (Oxfam, 2006). Some controversial topics have the potential to divide societies and cause disagreements and conflicts between people, so the question of dealing with them in school is controversial in itself. This is partly the reason why controversial questions can rarely be found in coursebooks: as it was suggested by Gray (2002), coursebook writers try to steer away from including the so-called PARSNIP topics (i.e., politics, alcohol, religion, sex, narcotics, isms, and pork) in their publications, which might be regarded inappropriate in some cultures, in order not to hinder the widespread distribution of their work.

Global, local, and intercultural issues are interconnected in today’s globalized world, and it is difficult to separate and clearly define them. Throughout the book, when referring to global, local, and intercultural issues, I intend to use either the umbrella term global content, also including controversial issues and taboo topics, or the expression global, local, and intercultural issues as in the definition of global competence, these three types of issues are separated (the capacity to examine local, global, and intercultural issues).

Although many local, global, and intercultural issues can be introduced to students and teachers have a wide range of choices, there have only been some successful attempts to systematise these issues into a coherent sequence of lessons and learning materials. For example, Project Everyone, in partnership with UNICEF and many non-governmental organisations, produced a large collection of teaching materials organised around the Sustainable Development Goals (including topics such as poverty, gender equality, affordable and clean energy), which can be used in different educational settings, and tailored to the students’ needs (World’s Largest Lesson, n.d.). According to the OECD PISA (2018) classification, the four key domains of knowledge that teachers should focus on in their classes in the context of GCED include culture and intercultural issues (e.g., arts, languages, traditions, identity), socio-economic development and interdependence (e.g., globalisation, international migration, transnational production, global brands and technologies), environmental sustainability (e.g., use of natural resources, understanding complex systems) and institutions that support peaceful relationships between people (e.g., the UN). Tawil’s (2013) proposed thematic areas, which have some overlaps with the OECD (2018) classification, include human rights issues (e.g., fundamental human rights and responsibilities, children’s rights, gender equality, cultural rights, freedom of expression), environmental issues (e.g., sustainability, the impact of patterns of production and consumption, climate change, biodiversity), issues of social and economic justice (e.g., poverty, health and well-being, inequality, migration, discrimination) and intercultural issues (e.g., identity, cultural diversity, world heritage, peace and conflict). Apart from the thematic areas, Boix Mansilla and Jackson (2011) propose four aspects to take into consideration when choosing the topic of the lesson: (1) the topics should generate deep engagement from the students, (2) they should have clear local-global connections, (3) they should have visible global significance, and finally, (4) they should have robust disciplinary and interdisciplinary grounding (p. 56). It seems clear from the lists above that teachers have a great variety of topics to choose from and by bringing in global content into the classroom, they can contribute to “building the foundations for students’ understanding of the world” (Boix Mansilla & Jackson, 2011, p. 11). Given that there is usually no fixed curriculum in EFL classes, these real-life topics could be easily incorporated into the lessons while also developing students’ language and thinking skills.