Renáta Berta, Orsolya Adamcsik, Ildikó Galambos, Nikoletta Kovács, Gábor Maász, Zita Zrínyi, Etelka Tombácz: What are we drinking? • Microplastic problems, current situation
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7. Technologies to produce water free of micropollutants and microplastics for different raw waters (drinking water, well water)
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7.4. Prospects

7.4. Prospects

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Based on the above, it can be said that no membrane separation process can effectively remove complex PEP. However, high-efficiency oxidation, carbon adsorption, MBR, etc. can complement each other when combined to achieve maximum separation. With the significant contribution of nanotechnology, pollution-free water will be accessible to mankind. A recent review paper [230] presents some nanotechnology options (membrane and chemical-based desalination, atmospheric water harvesting, catalysts, and nanosensors) to solve the problem of sustainable and affordable clean water. For congested and growing cities, some suggestions are made to solve water supply problems. Bottled water and the associated microplastic pollution are also mentioned. The integration of nanosensors into smart water bottles could revolutionize personalized supply and provide the ability to monitor water quality (pH, hardness, turbidity, etc.) by creating a network.

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Currently, the lack of a unified approach to testing advanced water treatment technologies hinders the interpretation and evaluation of data on the effectiveness of removal of chemicals of emerging concern (CEC). This prevents stakeholders from making informed decisions about which treatment technology can meet their specific needs. To improve the use of current knowledge, Fischer and his colleagues propose a data evaluation framework [231] for advanced drinking water and wastewater treatment technologies consisting of 9 relevance and 51 reliability criteria.

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Relevance of data: 1) Is the range of tests appropriate for the assessment? 2) Is the data provided appropriate for the assessment?

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Relevance of tests and target compounds: 3) In the case of a preparation or mixture, is the compound tested representative and appropriate for the compounds being evaluated? 4) Are the properties of the selected compounds appropriate for the tests? 5) Is the concentration of the compound used suitable for the purpose of the tests?

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The importance of the water matrix: 6) Has the correct type of water been selected for testing? 7) Are the properties of the selected water matrix suitable for the tests?

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The relevance of the treatment technology: 8) Are the characteristics of the chosen treatment technology suitable for the purpose of the experiments? 9) Is the size of the experiment appropriate for the purpose of the tests?

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The reliability criteria include the following:

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Methodology: Are guidelines (e.g. OECD/ISO/ASTM) or modified guidelines used for any part of the experiment? Is the experiment performed under good laboratory practice (GLP) conditions? Are validity criteria (e.g. controls) met?

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Information reported: Target compound: Identifier name, CAS number, or other identifying, tested form (such as salt, acid, or base). Effect parameter: Molecular charge/pKa (AC, ozone, NF/RO membranes), Log Kow/Log Dow (AC, NF/RO membranes), molecular weight/size (AC, NF/RO membranes), functional groups/reactivity. Supplier, purity of target compound.

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Water matrix: wastewater, wastewater runoff, surface water, groundwater, drinking water, demineralized water, or synthetic wastewater. Effect parameters: pH, NOM concentration and possible composition, temperature, nitrite/nitrate concentration (ozone, UV), bromide/bromate concentration (ozone), turbidity (NF/RO membranes), UV emissivity (UV).

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Conditions of the treatment process: Identification, type of technology used.

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Effect parameters: Surface area or membrane area (AC, NF/RO membranes), pore volume and pore size distribution (AC), bed volume (GAC), flow rate (GAC), precharge (GAC), surface charge (AC, NF/RO membranes), concentration/dose or intensity (GAC, ozone, UV), contact, exposure or irradiation time (AC, ozone, UV), biological activity (GAC), technological application (diagram), wavelength (UV), concentration of H2O2 reagent (ozone, UV), fouling (NF/RO membranes), transmembrane pressure (NF/RO membranes), permeate flux (NF/RO membranes), transverse flux (NF membranes), washing (GAC), recovery (NF/RO membranes), MWCO, and/or salt retention data (NF/RO membranes).

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Experimental conditions: Size of the experiment (laboratory, pilot, or large-scale), whether it is stand-alone or part of a treatment, whether the target compound is present in or labeled with the tested water matrix, and whether it is tested as a single compound or in a mixture. Initial concentration of the target compound, concentrations after treatment of the target compound and the measurement time points (duration of the experiment) are also necessary data. How are the samples collected and by what method? In case of an analytical method: description of the method, including recovery rates and matrix effects and their correction, quantification level (LOQ) are required.

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Reproducibility and uncertainties: Requirements include: calculation of removal efficiency, application of statistical methods. Is the result/efficiency statistically significant? Information on uncertainty is also necessary to include.

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The two sets of criteria provide the basis for a thorough, unbiased, and standardized method for selecting studies to scientifically evaluate and compare the CEC removal efficiencies of advanced water treatment technologies. The relevance criteria established for removal efficiency were reviewed for 244 publications, of which only 20% met the criteria. The remaining items were reviewed using the reliability criteria. In general, these criteria were met for information on the target compound, water matrix, and treatment process conditions. However, there is a lack of information on data interpretation and statistics. In summary, a minority of the documents evaluated were found to be adequate for comparison among techniques, compounds, and water matrices.

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Considering the ever-increasing problems caused by micro/nanoplastics, there is a clear need for methodological development, unification and standardization of sampling and measurement (quantity and quality) worldwide. In terms of European regulations, the accepted testing protocol is a prerequisite for risky substances to be included in the monitoring list, and after a large number of measurements and risk analyses, it is possible to establish future regulatory requirements.
 
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