1 Introduction

Research conducted in various parts of the world has shown that most teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL) acknowledge the concept of DI, but characteristics of the approach such as increased planning time and the multitasking nature of in-class work discourage them from implementing it on a regular basis (Bourini, 2015; Chien, 2015; Granås, 2019; Gülsen, 2018; Sougari & Mavroudi, 2019; Tzanni, 2018). As Blaz (2016) points out, “differentiation generates a workshop-style environment, which may look a bit chaotic to an outsider”, moreover, it “does require additional time” as “the bulk of the work is in the upfront planning” (p. 161).

Therefore, exploring ways to enhance DI has become increasingly important. Recently, the potential support provided by Information and Communications Technology (ICT) has emerged as an area of interest (K. Nagy et al., 2018; Tzanni, 2018; Smith & Throne, 2007; Valiande & Tarman, 2011). As Stanford et al. (2010) point out, technology could help teachers to “think and work ‘smarter’ and more efficiently rather than trying to work harder” when catering for individual needs (p. 2), as digital tools possess inherent features, such as self-paced and multimodal learning opportunities, which may enhance DI (Benjamin, 2014; Smith & Throne, 2007; Stanford et al., 2010). The term ‘technology-enhanced differentiated instruction’ (TEDI) has already entered the professional discourse (e.g., Haymon & Wilson, 2020; Jackson, 2023; Maeng, 2016; Ritter, 2018) and there is a growing body of research on the use of TEDI in different subjects (e.g., Alshareef et al., 2022; Cannon, 2017; Karatza, 2019; Valiande & Tarman, 2011). The term has appeared in the context of TEFL as well, although to date only a small number of empirical studies have examined how technology may enhance DI in the EFL class, and they mostly focus on specific applications (e.g., Güvenç, 2021; Hustinx et al., 2019; Meşe & Mede, 2022; Rapti, 2018; Vargas-Parra et al., 2018). Comprehensive exploratory research aimed at identifying instructional patterns through the triangulation of data from multiple perspectives and research sites have yet to be conducted. Such efforts would be important for gaining a deeper understanding of TEDI in TEFL and for mapping out a framework of practices that could be transferable to those seeking to use technology for DI in the EFL classroom.

Regarding the Hungarian context, the significance of DI in TEFL and the affordances of ICT for DI are highlighted in the National Core Curriculum (NCC) and DI features as a measurement indicator in the compulsory performance evaluation of primary and secondary school teachers (Educational Authority, 2019). Relatively little is known, however, about what primary and secondary school EFL teachers think of DI and TEDI and how they describe their use of these approaches. Recent research, including a large-scale questionnaire study on the effectiveness of foreign language teaching in Hungarian public education (Öveges & Csizér, 2018) and an interview study with secondary school teachers (Zólyomi, 2022), concluded that language teachers might need more comprehensive training in DI, but further exploratory research is needed to fully understand the complexities of this issue.

In line with the above research aims, the studies sought answers to the following research questions (each specified by a number of sub-questions detailed in Section 2.4):

It is hoped that the implications of the studies presented in this book will prove informative for EFL teachers, teacher educators, and policymakers. The examination of participants’ beliefs and self-reported practices of DI and TEDI in the first phase of the research project provides insights into Hungarian EFL teachers’ training needs, which could inform the development of pre- and in-service teacher training programmes focusing on equipping teachers with the knowledge and skills necessary for effective differentiation. In addition, by exploring the factors that participants identified as enablers of DI and TEDI, the research can provide practical recommendations for school administrators and educational policymakers. The beliefs and practices of Hungarian EFL teachers are also compared with findings from similar studies conducted in other countries, with the aim of broadening our understanding of EFL teachers’ perspectives on these approaches and identifying future areas for research in the field. Finally, it is hoped that the TEDI practices identified in the second phase may be transferable to other educational contexts and prove useful for both EFL teachers and teacher trainers seeking to harness the potential of technology for DI.