Anita Boros, Gyula Koi (eds): Sustainability and Law
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4. Constitutional and legal relations to sustainability: terms, environmental constitution(alism), constitutional environment (László Vértesy)
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4.2. Environmental constitution(alism), constitutional environment

4.2. Environmental constitution(alism), constitutional environment

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Environmental constitutionalism refers to the emergence of environmental protection and sustainability principles in constitutional texts, jurisprudence, and interpretive frameworks. It represents a new movement in constitutional thinking to merge environmental policy and constitutional law. There are two approaches to understanding environmental constitutionalism and the constitutional environment that are both related to the constitution’s thought and are analytically distinct from each other concerning our understanding of an unfolding relationship between constitutional law and ecological sustainability. Together, they constitute the theoretical and structural basis for grounding environmental values into the highest legal orders of democratic states.

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Environmental constitutionalism is a complex of constitutional norms, principles, doctrines, and practices that explicitly or implicitly further environmental protection and sustainable development: a legal doctrine and political movement reflecting a global shift in how social orders understand and define constitutional legitimacy, particularly in an era when ecological concerns have reached global proportions. Funk v. Wolf argues that when legal systems recognise the environment as a constitutional matter, they show a long-term commitment to considerations of ecological sustainability, democratic participation, and an accountability to future generations.1 Not only has environmental constitutionalism been marked by the creativity of scholars and practitioners, but also by citizen engagement and demand for environmental protection, especially as increased concerns for the environment lead citizens to consider environmental protection to be a matter of fundamental justice. Environmental constitutionalism incorporates the presence of rights and duties concerning the environment in constitutional texts, judicial interpretations of constitutional rights to include, when appropriate, ecological considerations, and the recognition of state obligations to preserve the environment for the present and future generations. At its core, the expansion of the concept of environmental constitutionalism indicates a normative change: moving environmental law from the margins to within the pages of the constitution and describing it as a constitutional right.2 Environmental constitutionalism begins from the premise that environmental degradation is an affront not only to the environment, but also to the effective realisation of fundamental rights, the autonomy that is required for systems of democratic governance, and principles of intergenerational justice. The rationale and justification for environmental constitutionalism stems from: (i) framing the environment as a necessary condition for the enjoyment of all other rights; (ii) entrenching and developing ecological matters with legal certainty; (iii) creating opportunities for courts to act as stewards of intergenerational equity; and (iv) providing for coherence and harmony between national and international environmental norms.

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The legal, constitutional concept is both normative and structural. Normatively, it rests on the premise that a clean environment is a prerequisite for the realisation of fundamental rights, including life, health, and dignity. Structurally, it calls for the embedding of environmental values in constitutional texts, jurisprudential practices, and policy arrangements such as environmental courts, ombudsperson institutions, and participatory frameworks. Environmental constitutionalism is a pathway towards linking ecological integrity with the legitimacy of law in communities that wish to reorient their constitutional orders towards sustainability and inter-generational equity.

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The theoretical foundations of environmental constitutionalism are a combination of theories from liberal constitutionalism, human rights framings, and ecological thought. Environmental constitutionalism realises that constitutional law is the highest form of law guaranteeing that values held by a particular society are important. If clean air, biodiversity and climate stability are, in fact, fundamental for human flourishing and for sustaining political order, then they should ultimately be given constitutional protection. Key conceptual features include:

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  • environmental rights: substantive rights to a clean and healthy environment a) either explicitly defined as rights in law or also recognised as rights when interpreting existing laws (e.g., right to life, dignity or health);
  • ecological duties: duties imposed on states - and in some instances, individuals - to protect, conserve, and restore the natural environment;3
  • temporal justice: a strong commitment to intergenerational equity which acknowledges that environmental degradation today diminishes the rights of future generations;
  • procedural guarantees: rights entailing access to environmental information, to participate in environmental decision making, and to obtain judicial remedies;
  • ecocentrism: in its most radical form, environmental constitutionalism exceeds anthropocentrism and recognises that nature has intrinsic value, and that non-human beings/objects have rights.
 

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The constitutionalisation of environmental protection is manifested in a number of forms: (i) through substantive provisions that articulate rights to a clean and healthy environment; (ii) through procedural guarantees including access to environmental information, the right to participate in decision-making, and access to justice; and (iii) through state duties imposed on governments, for instance, to regulate polluters, protect biodiversity, and pursue policies consistent with principles of sustainability, precaution, and equity. Even more radically in some jurisdictions, environmental constitutionalism has recognised the inherent rights of nature, a major departure from anthropocentric constitutional constructs that see nature as simply a resource or object of use.

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Several legal scholars and jurists have played a role in developing and advocating for environmental constitutionalism.

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Louis J. Kotzé has extensively written on global environmental constitutionalism, emphasising the intersection of climate change and constitutional law. He advocates for “global environmental constitutionalism” that transcends national boundaries.4 James R. May and Erin Daly are the co-editors of the seminal volume Environmental Constitutionalism,5 they have mapped the spread of environmental provisions in constitutions worldwide and analysed the judicial implementation of environmental rights. David Boyd was UN Special Rapporteur on human rights and the environment from 2018 to 2024, and championed the constitutional right to a healthy environment and documented its global diffusion in works like The Environmental Rights Revolution.6 Christina Voigt contributed to the understanding of how constitutions can support international environmental law and climate commitments through legal enforcement mechanisms.7 Catherine Redgwell is known for her work at the intersection of environmental law and international law, and has explored the constitutional dimensions of international environmental governance and biodiversity protection.8
 

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Figure 11. Environmental constitutionalism constitutional environment. Source: Compiled by the author
Aspect
Environmental Constitutionalism
Constitutional Environment
Definition
A normative framework incorporating environmental protection into constitutional law
The structural and institutional setting within which constitutional environmental norms operate
Focus
Substantive rights and state duties regarding the environment
Governance design, institutional enforcement, public participation
Legal Expression
Environmental rights, duties, and principles explicitly or implicitly in the constitution
Judicial systems, government competences, participatory processes
Examples
Right to a healthy environment; ‘polluter pays’ principle; rights of nature
Environmental courts; enforcement mechanisms; federal-local coordination
Analytical Function
Establishes legal norms and values regarding ecological protection
Enables and conditions the implementation of environmental norms
Scope
Primarily textual and doctrinal
Systemic and institutional
Dependency on Textual Provisions
High – often based on explicit constitutional provisions
Variable – includes both textual and non-textual factors
Role in Sustainability
Defines environmental obligations at the constitutional level
Supports the practical realization and effectiveness of environmental rights
 

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While environmental constitutionalism emphasises normative content – that is recognised and guaranteed in constitutions – the term constitutional environment indicates structural and institutional conditions for the establishment, implementation, and enforcement of environmental norms in a constitutional order.9 It includes the institutional design of environmental governance, the distribution of environmental competences across branches and levels of government, the role of constitutional courts in environmental adjudication, and the nature of public participation in environmental-decision making.

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The constitutional environment is dynamic and systemic. It also encompasses, beyond environmental provisions encapsulated in legal texts, the political culture, institutional practices, and legal traditions that determine how environmental rights and duties are realised in practice. A strong constitutional environment ensures that environmental rights are more than symbolic, are part of the functioning of the legal order and its enforcement mechanisms, and are integrated across a number of policy domains. It accepts the proposition that effective environmental protection requires not only legal norms, but also institutional capacity, judicial independence, scientific knowledge and information, and public accountability.

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Additionally, the constitutional framework is significant for resilience and adaptability to ecological threats. With increased pressure from environmental threats, such as climate change, biodiversity losses, and resource depletion, constitutional orders must develop capacity for change, which transforms social behaviour and stewards natural resources. This development must include the potential for forward-thinking and longer-term planning, use of scientific evidence as part of legal reasoning, and the creation of opportunities for intergenerational representation.

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The twin pillars of a constitution that aspires to be ecologically meaningful are structural integration and dynamic interpretation. (1) A constitution with concrete, structural values, immutable rights, duties of states, and new institutions promotes not solely boundaries of power but pathways for intergenerational justice and ecological resilience. (2) The notion of a dynamic ‘living constitution’ becomes more than simply a colloquial term; it assumes a normative vocabulary for responding to the climate and biodiversity crises of the 21st century.10 By embracing constitutional ecology, states embed sustainability at the heart of their political and legal identity.

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A truly ecological constitution structurally integrates sustainability through (i) foundational values and preambles; (ii) substantive rights of environmental character; (iii) duties of the state, and intergenerational responsibilities; and (iv) the design of institutions - guardians of nature.

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Foundational values and preambles. Many modern constitutions have inserted sustainability and environmental protection in their preambles and general provisions - placing ecological stewardship as a constitutional value.11 For example, the Constitution of Norway (Article 112) states that “every person has the right to an environment that is conducive to health” and requires the state to take measures to ensure this right for present and future generations;12 and, as in France, the 2005 Environmental Charter, inserted into the blocks of norms of the constitution, articulates precautionary principle, public participation and intergenerational solidarity - sustainability - as a value.13
 

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The French People,
Considering that:
Natural resources and equilibriums have conditioned the emergence of mankind;
The future and very existence of mankind are inextricably linked with its natural environment;
The environment is the common heritage of all mankind;
Mankind exerts ever-increasing influence over the conditions for life and its own evolution;
Biological diversity, the fulfilment of the person and the progress of human societies are affected by certain types of consumption or production and by excessive exploitation of natural resources;
Care must be taken to safeguard the environment along with the other fundamental interests of the Nation;
In order to ensure sustainable development, choices designed to meet the needs of the present generation should not jeopardise the ability of future generations and other peoples to meet their own needs, […]
 

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In the Americas, Ecuador’s 2008 Constitution breaks with anthropocentric constitutionalism altogether by recognising the rights of nature (Pacha Mama), giving ecosystems legal personhood.14

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Preamble
We women and men, the sovereign people of Ecuador
CELEBRATING nature, the Pacha Mama (Mother Earth), of which we are a part and which is vital to our existence,

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This foundational value shift marks a paradigmatic move toward ecocentric constitutional thought, now echoed in several subnational laws in the United States and Canada.

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Fundamental Environmental Rights. An ecological constitution also identifies environmental protection as a justiciable fundamental right that is not ancillary to economic growth or industrial development.15 For example, Article 66 of the Constitution of Portugal, guarantees each citizen the right to a “healthy and ecologically balanced environment" and obliges the state to “prevent and control pollution.”16 Article 24 with in the Bill of Rights in of the Constitution of South Africa, guarantees the right to an “environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being” and imposes a duty on the state to take “reasonable legislative and other measures” to protect the environment.17 Article 37 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the EU states that “Environmental protection must be integrated into the Union’s policies and ensured in accordance with the principle of sustainable development.” Even though the right contained in Article 37 is not justiciable in national courts, it nonetheless is taking on normative meaning in the context of EU environmental law.18

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State Duties and Intergenerational Responsibility. A defining feature of structural ecological integration is the establishment of positive duties on the state to protect the environment - not simply as an act of choice, but as a binding constitutional obligation. Article 20a states that the German Basic Law (Fundamental Law) requires that the state protect the natural foundations of life “also in responsibility for future generations.”19 This provision served as the basis for the 2021 Federal Constitutional Court ruling to invalidate certain portions of Germany’s climate legislation based on intergenerational equity.20 In Latin America, Colombia’s Constitutional Court interpreted the right to a healthy environment to include duties to future generations and non-human species, in particular in the Atrato River case (T-622/16), in which it granted legal personhood (subject) to the river.21 These judgments transform state environmental duties from passive commitments into enforceable constitutional imperatives.

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Institutional Design: Guardians of Nature. Structural integration also includes institutional forms that implement environmental norms. Specialised entities – including environmental ombudspeople,22 constitutional courts and public prosecutors with environmental mandates, or even NGOs23 – serve as stewards of ecological integrity.
 

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Figure 12. Environmental ombudspeople. Source: Compiled by the author
Country
Ombudsperson Institution
Legal Basis
Mandate and Powers
Sweden
Parliamentary Ombudsman (with environmental remit)
Instrument of Government, Environmental Code
Handles citizen complaints on maladministration including environmental law breaches; limited proactive power.
Portugal
Provedor de Justiça (Ombudsman)
Constitution, Law No. 9/91 (Ombudsman Law)
Receives complaints, can investigate maladministration including environmental issues; advisory powers.
Austria
Volksanwaltschaft (People’s Advocate) – Environmental Mandate
Austrian Ombudsman Act, supplemented by constitutional law
Investigates complaints including on environmental matters; publishes findings and recommends policy changes.
New Zealand
Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment
Environment Act 1986
Independent reporting and monitoring on environmental policy, legislation, and practices; no enforcement powers.
Canada (Ontario)
Environmental Commissioner, Office of the Auditor General
Environmental Bill of Rights (1993)
Investigates alleged violations of environmental rights, audits policy and compliance, can trigger reviews.
South Africa
Public Protector (occasionally addresses environmental issues)
Section 182 of the Constitution (broad mandate)
Addresses rights violations including environmental justice but lacks a specific environmental mandate.
Hungary
Deputy Commissioner for Future Generations
Act CXI of 2011 on the Parliamentary Commissioner
Monitors environmental and future generations’ rights, issues reports, may initiate investigations and constitutional complaints.
 

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Within the Euro-Atlantic community, Ireland’s Climate Advisory Council (est. 2015),24 the High Council on Climate (fr. Haut Conseil pour le Climat, est. 2018) in France,25 and the Commissioner of the Environment and Sustainable Development in Canada26 have quasi-constitutional functions when it comes to overseeing environmental governance. The Hungarian Parliamentary Commissioner for Future Generations was a trailblazing, widely recognised model of institutionalised long-term ecological guardianship before being merged into a more generic ombuds institution.

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Beyond formal entrenchment, environmental constitutionalism calls for a dynamic and evolutionary interpretation of constitutional texts: a living constitution, which interprets the constitution as living ecology. Just as ecosystems are not static but evolve in response to climatic, biological, and anthropogenic pressures, constitutions too must exhibit a capacity for legal adaptation. This principle of constitutional ecology envisions constitutions as living documents – ecological infrastructures in themselves – able to respond to new scientific knowledge, societal demands, and environmental crises with the support of (i) dynamic interpretation by courts; (ii) amendment procedures and environmental reforms; and (iii) participatory environmental governance. In this view, constitutional law becomes part of the ‘ecological infrastructure’ of society; a foundation for sustainable governance rather than merely a limit on state power.

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Dynamic Interpretation by Courts. Courts are essential participants in the evolution of the constitution. In India, the Supreme Court has interpreted the right to life (Article 21) as including the right to a healthy environment, thereby filling in the gap of no provision on environmental rights.27 In the Netherlands, the prominent Urgenda Foundation v State of the Netherlands case (2015) looked at principles of human rights and proportionality, despite lacking any legislative basis, particularly in contemporary norms of international environmental law, when enforcing the government’s climate obligations.28 The conclusion is that climate change liability stretches the possibilities of tort law adjudication to the max and even beyond, depending on one’s readiness to adjust it to societal problems like climate change.29 Here, one could consider that climate obligations were read into constitutional obligations of legality and international law obligations. Similarly, constitutional courts in Europe (e.g. those in Germany and Slovenia) have interpreted provisions more generally to encompass ecological claims, reaffirming that sustainability is not a ‘bolt on’ but a central aspect of democratic legality.

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Amendment Procedures and Environmental Reforms. Another dimension of constitutional ecology is the ability to formally amend constitutions to reflect new environmental understandings. Italy’s 2022 constitutional reform, which added environmental protection and biodiversity to Articles 9 and 41, exemplifies this responsive adaptation.30 Through the constitutional regulation of economic activity alongside an express commitment to climate protection, Italy has signalled a normative reordering of priorities. Italy has imposed ecological limits on economic freedoms. In 2022, the Chilean Constitutional Convention in Latin America attempted to draft a ‘green constitution’ and incorporate water, ecosystem protection, and climate justice into governance across virtually all domains of governance.31 The draft constitution failed in a referendum, but it nonetheless showed that there is an increasingly significant political appetite for differently transformative forms of constitutionalism when using an ecological lens.

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Participatory Environmental Governance. In addition, constitutional ecology requires the democratic legitimacy of civic participation in environmental governance through civic access to information, publicly available legal standing, and modes of participation.32 The Aarhus Convention has been ratified by the EU and much of the EU membership. It provides some principles of procedural rights around a person’s (and the public’s) entitlement to access information in relation to the environment; the right to participate, and; rights of access to succour. States such as Sweden and Finland proceed, either explicitly or tacitly in (i) the use of constitutions or administrative frameworks; and (ii) France’s Citizen’s Convention for Climate illustrates how participatory experimentation can nourish legislative and constitutional development by having governments experiment in a participatory way instilling an enjoyable approach to government. Such modes of civic environmental engagement attach a democratic legitimacy and rights associated with environmental governance. They create a feedback loop between civic society and law.

4.2.1. Legal Development and other Drivers

4.2.2. Constitutional Duties and Sustainability Obligations

4.2.3. The Role of Constitutional Courts in Environmental Protection

4.2.4. Sustainability and Constitutional Economy

1

Funk v. Wolf [case]. URL: https://climatecasechart.com/case/funk-v-wolf/ (accessed: 29 October 2024).

Kennedy, K. (2020). The Limits Placed on Pennsylvania's Constitutional Right to Clean Water and Air: An Analysis of Funk v. Wolf. Joule: Duq. Energy & Envtl. LJ, 8, 60.

Wolf, M. A. (2018). Right Environmentalism: Repurposing Conservative Constitutionalism. Ariz. St. LJ, 50, 651.

2

Kerner, W. (2022). Making Environmental Wrongs Environmental Rights: A Constitutional Approach. Stan. Env't LJ, 41, 83.

Collins(2021). op. cit.

Lazarus(2023). op. cit. .

3

Gray, R. A. (1994). Ecology and ethics: Is there a duty to nature? Reference Services Review, 22(1), 57-74.;

Melo-Escrihuela, C. (2008). Promoting ecological citizenship: Rights, duties and political agency. ACME: An International Journal for Critical Geographies, 7(2), 113-134.

4 Kotzé, L. J. (2012). Arguing global environmental constitutionalism. Transnational Environmental Law, 1(1), 199-233.
5 May, J. R., & Daly, E. (2015). Global environmental constitutionalism. (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press). xii, 414. ISBN: 9781139135559 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139135559
6 Boyd, D. R. (2011). The environmental rights revolution: a global study of constitutions, human rights, and the environment. (Vancouver:University of British Columbia Press). 468. ISBN: 0774821639 (ISBN10) ISBN: 9780774821636 (ISBN13)
7

Voigt, C. (2019). How a ‘Global Pact for the Environment’ could add value to international environmental law. Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law, 28(1), 13-24.

Voigt, C. (Ed.). (2013). Rule of law for nature: new dimensions and ideas in environmental law. (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press). xviii, 389. ISBN: 9781107337961 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107337961

Voigt, C. (2023). The power of the Paris Agreement in international climate litigation. Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law, 32(2), 237-249.

8

Redgwell, C. (2012). Climate Change and International Environmental Law. In: Rayfuse, R., Scott, V.S. (eds.). International Law in the Era of Climate Change. (Cheltenham (UK)-Northampton (US):Edward Elgar Publishing). 140-169.

Boyle, A. E., & Redgwell, C., Birnie, W.P. (2021). Birnie, Boyle, and Redgwell's International Law and the Environment. (Oxford:Oxford University Press). xxxviii, 866. Print ISBN: 9780199594016 Online ISBN: 9780191795602 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/he/9780199594016.001.0001

9 Mushonga, T. (2023). Constitutional environmental rights and state violence: implications for environmental justice in protected forests. Environmental justice, 16(3), 194-202.; Paulovics, A., & Jámbor, A. (2021). A környezetvédelem alkotmányjogi alapjai [Constitutional foundations of environmental protection]. Miskolci Jogi Szemle [Miskolc Legal Quarterly], 16(5), 407-421.
10 Petersmann, M. C. (2022). Life beyond the law–from the ‘living constitution’to the ‘constitution of the living’. Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht/Heidelberg Journal of International Law, 82(4), 769-800.
11

Declaye, J. (2025). Preambles: Toward the Future. In: Oomen, B., Castaldi, S. (eds.). Principles of Nursing Infection Prevention Control . (Cham:Springer) 1-7. Print ISBN: 978-3-031-84468-3Online ISBN: 978-3-031-84469-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-84469-0_1.

Voermans, W., & Stremler, M., Cliteur, P. (2017). Constitutional preambles: A comparative analysis. (Cheltenham (UK)-Northampton (US):Edward Elgar Publishing). x, 302. Elgar Monographs of Constitutional and Administrative Law. ISBN: 9781785368141 (ISBN13) ISBN: 1785368141 (ISBN10).

Scobie, M. (2021). Treaty preambles and the environmental justice gap. Global Policy, 12(3), 273-285.

12 The Constitution of the Kingdom of Norway. “Article 112. Every person has the right to an environment that is conducive to health and to a natural environment whose productivity and diversity are maintained. Natural resources shall be managed on the basis of comprehensive long-term considerations which will safeguard this right for future generations as well. In order to safeguard their right in accordance with the foregoing paragraph, citizens are entitled to information on the state of the natural environment and on the effects of any encroachment on nature that is planned or carried out. The authorities of the State shall take measures for the implementation of these principles.” The Constitution of Kingdom of Norway URL: https://lovdata.no/dokument/NLE/lov/1814-05-17 (accessed 29 October 2024).
13 It wasn’t until 2005 that the Charter for the Environment, the most recent of the four constitutional texts, was incorporated in the preamble of the Constitution of 1958. URL: https://www.elysee.fr/en/french-presidency/the-charter-for-the-environment (accessed 29 October 2024).
14 2008 Constitution of Ecuador URL: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Ecuador_2021 (accessed 29 October 2024).
15 Babeck, W. (2024). Environmental Rights. In: Writing Constitutions: Volume 2: Fundamental Rights. (Cham: Springer International Publishing). 531-558. Hardcover ISBN: 978-3-031-39621-2 Softcover ISBN: 978-3-031-39624-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39622-9
16

Constitution of the Portuguese Republic. Article 66. Environment and quality of life. URL: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Portugal_2005 and https://fra.europa.eu/en/law-reference/constitution-portuguese-republic-26

17

Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 URL: https://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/constitution-republic-south-africa-1996-04-feb-1997 (accessed: 29 October 2024)

18 Quirico, O. (2021). Integrating human rights and environmental duties: prospective implications of Article 37 of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights. BU Int'l LJ, 39, 41.
19

Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany in the revised version published in the Federal Law Gazette Part III, classification number 100-1, as last amended by the Act of 22 March 2025 (Federal Law Gazette 2025 I, No. 94). URL: https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_gg/englisch_gg.html (accessed 29 October 2024)

20 Mead, S., Fantozzi, F. P., & Maxwell, L. (2024). Systemic climate change litigation. In Research Handbook on Climate Change Litigation (pp. 77-98). (Cheltenham (UK)-Northampton (US)::Edward Elgar Publishing) 77-98.
21

Mosquera-Guerrero, L. - Krueger, T. (2024). ’Struggling for the recognition of river rights: A case of hydrosocial territorialization of the Atrato River in Colombia.’ Geoforum 151(4) 104000. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2024.104000

McNeish, J. A. (2023). The river as subject: legal innovations and their consequence for rights and development. In: Bull, B., Aguilar-Støen, M. (eds.). Handbook on International Development and the Environment. (Cheltenham (UK)-Northampton (US):Edward Elgar Publishing). 122-136. ISBN: 9781800883789 ISBN: 1800883781

Vergara Mosquera, G. S., & Moreno Córdoba, L. J. (2024). Effectiveness of Sentencia T-622/16 and biocultural rights. Revista Pensamiento Americano, 17(34).

22 Shindo, M. (2019). ‘Environmental ombudsman: Its role in the system of accountability mechanisms for administrative environmental decision making.’ In: Voigt, C. (ed.). International Judicial Practice on the Environment. Questions of Legitimacy (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press). 391-416. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108684385.016 Studies on International Courts and Tribunals.
23 Hamman, E. (2019). The role of NGOs in monitoring compliance under the World Heritage Convention: options for an improved tripartite regime. In: Voigt, C. (ed.). International Judicial Practice on the Environment. Questions of legitimacy 417-442. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108684385.017 Studies on International Courts and Tribunals.
24

Ireland's Climate Advisory Council URL: https://www.climatecouncil.ie/ (accessed 29 October 2024)

Tallon, G., Turner, S., & Thorgeirsson, H. (2020, December). Independent Evaluation of the Climate Change Advisory Council.

25

.

High Council on Climate/Haut Conseil pour le Climat URL: https://www.hautconseilclimat.fr/en/ (accessed 29 October 2024); Boucher, O. Création d’un Haut conseil pour le climat. La Météorologie, 2019(104), 11-11.

26

Commissioner of the Environment and Sustainable Development in Canada URL: https://www.oag-bvg.gc.ca/internet/English/au_fs_e_370.html#Commissioner (accessed 29 October 2024).

Wright, D., & McKenzie, J. (1990). Canadian Commissioner of the Environment and Sustainable Development. Environment and Sustainable Development, 42(11), 44.

27

Kaushish, L. (2023). Analysis of the Judicial Trends on the Right to a Clean and Healthy Environment in India. Indian J. Integrated Rsch. L., 3, 1.

Constitution of India. 21. Protection of life and personal liberty.—No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law. https://legislative.gov.in/constitution-of-india/

28 Leijten, I. (2019). Human rights v. Insufficient climate action: The Urgenda case. Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights, 37(2), 112-118.
29 Loth, M. A. (2018). Too big to trial? Lessons from the Urgenda case. Uniform Law Review, 23(2), 336-353.
30 Piscitelli, P., Costa, S., Costa, A., Emiliano, M., Caputo, N., Schittulli, F., ... & Miani, A. (2022). Italian Constitution amended to include environmental and health protection: A model for Europe. The Lancet Regional Health–Europe, 16(5). URL: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanepe/article/PIIS2666-7762(22)00060-6/fulltext
31

Moreno, R. L. (2025). Constitutionally mobilizing against climate change: the case of the environmental movement at the Chilean Constitutional Convention. Law & Society Review 59(1), 106-137. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/lsr.2024.59

Berasaluce, M., Díaz-Siefer, P., Rodríguez-Díaz, P., Mena-Carrasco, M., Ibarra, J. T., Celis-Diez, J. L., & Mondaca, P. (2021). Social-environmental conflicts in Chile: is there any potential for an ecological constitution? Sustainability, 13(22), 12701.

32 Jager, N. W., Newig, J., Challies, E., & Kochskämper, E. (2020). Pathways to implementation: Evidence on how participation in environmental governance impacts on environmental outcomes. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 30(3), 383-399.
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