The first research question (through a questionnaire study) set out to explore what attitudes Hungarian English Studies / EFL teacher education majors hold towards ICT use for general and learning purposes, and what their perceived levels of digital competences are. While learners (N = 320) perceived that the Availability of ICT devices are generally high (M = 4.44; SD = 0.59), it was interesting to see that their Devoted time (M = 3.27; SD = 1.03) and using ICT for Language learning purposes (M = 3.84; SD = 0.78) were both less predominant. Correlational analyses confirmed that learners’ Language learning through ICT does not live up to its full potential, perhaps because the recreational use of devices is more prominent than using them for out-of-class, extramural language learning purposes (Fajt, 2021; Lajtai, 2020; Lee, 2019; Sundqvist, 2009), or because their university classes do not necessitate using technologies for such self-directed purposes (Dringó-Horváth & Gonda, 2018; M. Pintér, 2019; 2021). The general interconnectedness of the surveyed dimensions of ICT literacy and learners’ perceived levels of Digital competences suggest that some of the individual components of literacy could be isolated successfully, but this literacy requires the interaction of each separate component (EU 2015; 2016; ICTLP, 2007). Ideally, learners’ device use for studying and language learning purposes should be strengthened by using technologies in the classrooms more widely, continuously reflecting on technology use as well as requiring students to try their hands at studying through or experimenting with various technological alternatives (Dringó-Horváth & Menyhei, 2020; Öveges & Csizér, 2018) because these digital skill sets have several added benefits when it comes to them entering the job market in the 21st century (BECTA, 2003; Lei et al., 2021). This experimentation is best if it is facilitated by expert instructors and is linked to as many different subjects as possible to result in confident, self-directed, and purposeful use (Graham et al., 2012; Tsai & Chai, 2012; Tondeur et al., 2016).

The second research question (through a questionnaire study) investigated what attitudes Hungarian university instructors teaching in English Studies and EFL teacher education programmes (N = 71) hold towards ICT use for instructional purposes and what their perceived levels of digital competences are. The instructors attached high importance towards the Reasons for using ICT devices in the modern world (M = 4.79; SD = 0.40) and claimed that they mainly used the devices because they Substituted face-to-face communication by facilitating handling student assignments and correspondence with the learners (M = 4.69; SD = 0.46). While the lowest rated digital competence of instructors was Keeping up with the development in the field of ICT (M = 3.86; SD = 0.90), both their Content creation (M = 4.51; SD = 0.61) and Search engine (aka. research use) of devices were rather highly rated (M = 4.50; SD = 0.63). The correlational analyses of the questionnaire constructs revealed that instructors’ ICT use is mainly determined by willingness and invested time, suggesting that it is highly the individual’s attached beliefs and self-concept that determines inclusion as opposed to other factors such as gender or age. There exists; however, and age-related difference in the sample because it was found in the sample (similar to Monacis et al., 2019) that teachers with 20+ years of teaching experience attach significantly lesser values towards utilising technology in their teaching processes, but this difference should not be interpreted as a dichotomy (Bayne & Ross, 2011; Drent & Meelissen, 2008; Korlat et al., 2021; Morgan et al., 2021; Mossberger et al., 2008). Teachers with less than 20 years of teaching experience have the inherent advantage of having been exposed to technology to a much larger extent, but anyone investing the time and effort into experimenting with technologies can become a digital citizen (Bayne & Ross, 2011; Mossberger et al., 2008; Papp-Danka, 2013).

Closely linked to the previous argument, it was also found that teachers’ Instructional use of technology is mostly determined by their levels of Acceptance and their digital Content creation and sharing abilities. The most prominent way of altering one’s beliefs about technology integration is through experimentation, which all instructors were forced to do because of the Covid-19 pandemic. Participants in the questionnaire study reported statistically significant gains in their technological skills, and by the second Covid-wave, the number of synchronous online contact lessons with learners grew significantly. A major advantage of the otherwise unwelcome pandemic could be that it forced teachers to experiment with technology and provided them with instances of success in their endeavours (Fekete, 2020a; Peters et al., 2020). In the case of some teachers, it might also have resulted in the realisation that technological, pedagogical, and technological methodological skills are separate knowledge domains that could and should be developed separately (Chai et al., 2011; Koehler et al., 2014; Mishra & Koehler, 2006). As instructors are the most important sources of learners’ technological knowledge development regarding the purposeful study use of devices and tools even at a university level (Aşık et al., 2020; Graham et al., 2012; Tezci, 2011), their dedication and lifelong learning about technology should strongly be advocated and supported institutionally (Dringó-Horváth & Dombi, 2020; Fekete, 2020a; M. Pintér, 2019; MDOS, 2016; Molnár et al., 2020; Öveges & Csizér, 2018).

The third research question (via semi-structured interviews) aimed at collecting what the views of Hungarian English Studies / EFL teacher education majors (N = 12) on skilful ICT use for studying purposes and technology integration into their future teaching practices are. Most participants were very frequent users of technology not only for recreational, but for language learning and even (private) teaching purposes. They provided an array of technological tools used, but it could be observed that the majority of the tools were directly in connection with their EFL learning / EFL teaching. Only some students referred to courses that reflectively involved the use of technological tools and were not language development or teaching methodology oriented. Those individuals who already had some teaching experience mentioned that their technology use was mostly prompted by pedagogical purposes, but some informants claimed to have used tools because of their entertaining potential. Teachers or tutors of younger learners also found it important to protect their students’ privacy and preferred logging in to websites themselves as opposed to asking them to register. These suggest that most interview participants portrayed a rather professional understanding of technology inclusion and their digital competences appeared to be highly developed (EU, 2015; 2016; Vuorikari et al., 2016). Not all of the students; however, mentioned that the source of their technological pedagogical knowledge was the university, which can be interpreted both as good and bad news. On the one hand, students’ initiative to discover and experiment with digital possibilities is an important developmental endeavour, but on the other hand, courses as part of their (teacher) education made references and utilised the digital alternatives to a lesser extent. Another important aspect was that each participant had been an active university student prior the “reality shock” (Tondeur et al., 2016, p. 16) of teaching full-time, and while their attitudes and beliefs were predominantly positive towards using ICT devices in learning and teaching, it remains a question to what extent this attitude results in long-term, pedagogically motivated use of devices accompanied with constant experimentation of new possibilities (Czirfusz et al., 2020; Kárpáti et al., 2015; Tondeur et al., 2016).

The fourth research question (via semi-structured interviews) intended to collect what the expert views of Hungarian university instructors teaching in English Studies and EFL teacher education programmes (N = 12) about skilful ICT use in English major programmes are. The informants unanimously agreed that the technological alternatives are worthwhile to be included in all their classes, be it methodological, language development or academic skills oriented because technology has become an integrated part of life (e.g., EU, 2018; Harris, 2005; ICTLP, 2007) and digital skills are needed at most workplaces (e.g., Davies, 2011; Drent & Meelissen, 2008; EU, 2018). Several participants voiced that they think of themselves as role models and examples to be followed by their learners, and they try to fulfil this potential by being reflective of not only the technologies in the classes, but about the rationales behind inclusion. The instructors also felt that they belong to a critical mass often referenced in the literature (Kárpáti, 2012; Molnár, 2011), and they find it important to share their knowledge and attitudes with fellow colleagues too in the form of self-organised professional development workshops (Avalos, 2011; Fekete & Divéki, 2022; Koster et al., 2008; McArdle & Coutts, 2010; Wardip et al., 2015). Some participants mentioned that the lack of explicit digital skills development in earlier stages of education is sometimes traceable in their learners as well as they sensed a connection between their learners’ general and digital study skills (Asztalos, 2015; ICTLP, 2007; Tongori, 2018; Tongori & Molnár, 2018; Tóth-Mózer, 2014). The expert informants mentioned that forcing technology use on teachers in public education and expecting the same from all university instructors had a visible counteract on some of their colleague’s beliefs about use. While most participants agreed that technology should be included in as many university subjects as possible in a learner-centred way, local hubs and workshops should be created to offer brainstorming, learning, and experimenting possibilities for instructors that could result in more and more of them joining the critical mass.