In recent decades, the increasing pressures on water resources from climate change, population growth, and industrial activities have intensified the need for robust water governance frameworks that can adapt to complex and dynamic challenges.1 Until the 20th century, the term ‘water management’ was primarily used to refer to water lease and flood protection, which was later complemented by water utility services and environmental protection. Historically, the international administration of water resources has evolved through a series of treaties, conventions, and institutional arrangements aimed at promoting sustainable water management and preventing conflicts over shared water bodies. The international background of water resources administration is characterised by a diverse array of governance models, legal frameworks, and institutional arrangements that reflect the varying environmental, political, and socio-economic contexts of different regions.2 These models range from highly centralised approaches, where national governments retain significant control over water management, to decentralised or cooperative models that emphasise stakeholder participation and regional cooperation.3 One of the earliest and most influential frameworks is the 1997 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses, which establishes principles for equitable and reasonable use, the obligation not to cause significant harm, and the necessity of cooperation among riparian states.4 According to McCaffrey,5 despite its importance, the convention has faced challenges in achieving widespread ratification and implementation, reflecting the complexities of international water governance. In addition to the UN Watercourses Convention, other international, national and regional agreements and institutions play a vital role in water resources administration. For example, the EU has developed a comprehensive policy framework through directives such as the WFD, which seeks to achieve good ecological status for all EU waters and promotes an integrated approach to water management across the Member States.6 Similarly, in Africa, the African Ministers’ Council on Water (abbr. AMCOW) facilitates cooperation on water management issues across the continent, while in North America, the International Joint Commission (abbr. IJC) oversees the management of shared water resources between the United States and Canada under the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909.7

According to Zeitoun and Warner,8 the effectiveness of these above-mentioned frameworks in addressing water challenges varies widely, influenced by factors such as the strength of legal structures, the capacity of administrative institutions, and the degree of political will and cooperation among states.