Anita Boros, Gyula Koi (eds): Sustainability and Law
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2. Methodological approach to the concept of sustainability and law (László Vértesy)
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2.2. Systems thinking
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2.2.1. Social science methods

2.2.1. Social science methods

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Systems thinking can employ a variety of social science quantitative and qualitative methods.1

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Quantitative vs. Qualitative methods
Characteristic
Quantitative research
Qualitative research
Independence of researcher from those being researched
Independent
Not independent
Terms for those taking part
Respondents
Participants, informants
Focus of study
Variables and relationships between them
Attributed meanings and associated variables
Sampling techniques
Probability
Non-probability
Generalisation
Statistical
To theory
Data collection method(s)
Rigorously defined, highly structured
Unstructured or semi-structured
Data
Numerical and standardised
Non-standardised, generally requiring classification
Analysis
Through statistics and diagrams
Through conceptualisation
Derivation of meaning
Numbers
Words (spoken/text) and images
Source: own compilation of the author
 

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Quantitative methods are used to collect and analyse data that is numeric in nature. These might use questionnaires for surveys or from statistical databases in experiments. The advantage of quantitative methods is that the quantitative analysis of the data can allow for a large amount of data to be collected and analysed, as researchers are able to reach statistical conclusions. In addition, a researcher is often able to correlate quantitative data with quantitative data from other studies.
 

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Quantitative methods
Surveys and Questionnaires
Collecting structured data from large samples to draw generalizable conclusions.
A survey could ask people about their environmentally conscious habits.
Experiments
Conducted in controlled conditions to examine cause-and-effect relationships
How effective an environmental campaign is in changing public behaviour
Statistical Analysis
Uses existing data (e.g., government statistics or large datasets) to identify trends and patterns.
Researchers could analyse the relationship between industrial activities and air pollution
Source: own compilation of the author
 

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Qualitative methods are used to collect non-numeric social data, and they might use interviews, focus groups, observations, and document analysis. The advantage of qualitative methods is that researchers can have rich data and understanding of social phenomena as researchers are able to get social understanding of their participants’ experiences and perspectives. In addition, qualitative research is often inherently more flexible than quantitative research because as the researcher is conducting the research, the new findings may lead to new questions. Often quantitative and qualitative methods are combined for research as researchers are able to draw on the benefits of both methods, as the quantitative data will cover a broad picture of an area while qualitative data will allow for a more in depth understanding.2 For example, a researcher may collect survey data to get a clear statistical picture of an entire population, such as environmental habits, and subsequently conduct interviews to better understand the survey data and people’s motivations. Statistical methods can also complement legal research in several ways.3

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Qualitative methods
Interviews
In-depth, unstructured or semi-structured conversations, which provide deeper insights into people’s experiences and opinions
Interviews with community members could explore how pollution impacts their daily lives
Focus Groups
Discussions with small groups focused on a specific topic
A focus group could discuss how people perceive new environmental regulations
Observation
Researchers directly observe people’s behaviour in their natural environment
Observing people in a city park to understand how environmental awareness influences their behaviour
Source: own compilation of the author
 

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Statistical data sources can be divided into primary (own data collected for statistical purposes) and secondary data (all other data). Data collections by statistical offices are primary data (see census, etc.). The EU, OECD, IMF, World Bank and national statistical offices provide data on various environmental indicators.

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Brackstone identifies four different characteristics of secondary (or administrative) data from a statistical use perspective:4 (i) the organisation providing data for statistical purposes is not the same as the unit to which the data refer (unlike most statistical surveys); (ii) the data were originally collected for a well-defined, non-statistical purpose; (iii) their aim is full coverage of the target group; (iv) the method of data collection and processing is still determined by the organisation despite statistical utilisation. The European Environment Agency (abbr. EEA) offers reports, maps and data on the European environment.5

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Case studies usually involve a deep dive into one or a few specific environmental, economic processes, legal decisions, policies or programmes in order to understand the effectiveness of different programmes in promoting sustainability goals. This is how one might analyse the implementation of a national green program. A case study might include interviews with stakeholders, including policymakers and environmental NGOs, to assess the impact of the program on green building practices. Ostrom and Sjoberg et al.’s book uses a case study approach to examine the effectiveness of community-based natural resource management initiatives in a given region. They analyse the factors that contribute to the success or failure of these initiatives and present strategies to promote sustainable resource management.6

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Surveys and interviews collect quantitative and qualitative data from stakeholders, including industry, policymakers and communities, to understand their perspectives on the legal framework for sustainability. Surveys can be conducted among businesses in a specific sector, region, or country, group of countries, or social groups to understand their awareness of and compliance with environmental regulations. This data can inform the development of targeted regulatory interventions. Many studies use interviews with policymakers and community leaders to explore the challenges and opportunities of implementing participatory approaches to environmental decision-making.7

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Furthermore, in mixed approaches, the methods of both designs can also be used interchangeably. A mixed approach will allow quantitative data to provide an overall view, while qualitative data will give a more in-depth understanding. For instance, the researchers may first conduct a survey to collect statistical data on people’s environmentally friendly habits and then conduct interviews to better understand the participants’ survey responses and people’s reasons.
 
1 Edmonds, W. A., –Kennedy, T. D. (2016). An applied guide to research designs: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. (London: Sage Publications). DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071802779 Print ISBN 9781483317274 Online ISBN 9781071802779
2

Gilad, S. (2021). Mixing qualitative and quantitative methods in pursuit of richer answers to real-world questions. Public Performance & Management Review, 44(5) 1075-1099. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15309576.2019.1694546;

Taylor, G. R. ed. (2005). Integrating quantitative and qualitative methods in research. (Lanham (MD), University Press of America) 378. ISBN: 0761832416 (ISBN10) ISBN: 978-0761832416 (ISBN13).

3See the following chapters: Németh, R. (2020). A statisztikai megközelítés [The statistical approach], In: Jakab A., Sebők M. (eds.). Empirikus jogi kutatások. Paradigmák, módszertan, alkalmazási területek. [Empirical legal research. Paradigms, methodology, areas of application]. (Budapest: Osiris Kiadó – MTA Társadalomtudományi Kutatóközpont). 77-92. ISBN: 978-963-276-384-2 Osiris Tankönyvek; Simon, D. (2020). Leíró statisztikai alapok [Descriptive statistical foundations], In: Jakab A., Sebők, M. (eds.): Empirikus jogi kutatások. Paradigmák, módszertan, alkalmazási területek. [Empirical legal research. Paradigms, methodology, areas of application]. (Budapest: Osiris Kiadó – MTA Társadalomtudományi Kutatóközpont). ISBN: 978-963-276-384-2 301-324. Osiris Tankönyvek; Barna, I. (2020). Statisztikai elemzések [Statistical analyses], In: Jakab A., Sebők, M. (eds.): Empirikus jogi kutatások. Paradigmák, módszertan, alkalmazási területek. [Empirical legal research. Paradigms, methodology, areas of application]. (Budapest: Osiris Kiadó – MTA Társadalomtudományi Kutatóközpont). 325-346. ISBN: 978-963-276-384-2 Osiris Tankönyvek.
4 Brackstone, G. J. (1987). Issues in the use of administrative records for statistical purposes. Survey Methodology, Statistics Canada, 13(1) 29-43. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/12-001-x/1987001/article/14467-eng.pdf (Accessed: 30 June 2024 )
5 European Environment Agency (webpage) URL: https://www.eea.europa.eu/en (accessed: 30 June 2024)
6

Ostrom, E. (1990). Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) ISBN 9781316423936 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316423936;

Sjoberg, G., Orum, A. M., Feagin, J. R. (1992). . A case for the case study. Social Forces 71(1) 240-247, The University of North Carolina Press. DOI:10.2307/2579984

7 Wu, Lihua et al. (2020). Improvement of regional environmental quality: Government environmental governance and public participation. Science of the Total Environment, 717(5) 137265. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137265; Steele, J. (2001). Participation and deliberation in environmental law: exploring a problem-solving approach. Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, 21(3) 415-442. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ojls/21.3.415
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