Anita Boros, Gyula Koi (eds): Sustainability and Law
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4. Constitutional and legal relations to sustainability: terms, environmental constitution(alism), constitutional environment (László Vértesy)
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4.3. Sustainable Constitutionalism and Legislation Examples in EU Member States
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4.3.1. Southern, Mediterranean Europe

4.3.1. Southern, Mediterranean Europe

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The Southern, Mediterranean European countries are the pioneers of explicit environmental rights. They were among the early adopters of environmental constitutionalism in the post-World War II era.

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Portugal - as a leader in Europe, Portugal’s Constitution, 1976, (Article 66), guarantees a healthy and ecologically balanced human living environment. It mandates the State to promote sustainable development (thereby encountering its natural resources), promote sustainability and limit pollution.

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Article 66. Environment and quality of life
1. Everyone shall possess the right to a healthy and ecologically balanced human living environment and the duty to defend it.
2. In order to ensure enjoyment of the right to the environment within an overall framework of sustainable development, acting via appropriate bodies and with the involvement and participation of citizens, the State shall be charged with:
a. Preventing and controlling pollution and its effects and the harmful forms of erosion;
b. Conducting and promoting town and country planning with a view to a correct location of activities, balanced social and economic development and the enhancement of the landscape;
c. Creating and developing natural and recreational reserves and parks and classifying and protecting landscapes and places, in such a way as to guarantee the conservation of nature and the preservation of cultural values and assets that are of historic or artistic interest;
d. Promoting the rational use of natural resources, while safeguarding their ability to renew themselves and maintain ecological stability, with respect for the principle of intergenerational solidarity;
e. Acting in cooperation with local authorities, promoting the environmental quality of rural settlements and urban life, particularly on the architectural level and as regards the protection of historic zones;
f. Promoting the integration of environmental objectives into the various policies of a sectoral nature;
g. Promoting environmental education and respect for environmental values;
h. Ensuring that fiscal policy renders development compatible with the protection of the environment and the quality of life.

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Portuguese courts have been able to use this provision in a variety of circumstances that relates to industrial pollution and poor management of waste. The National Climate Energy Plan (abbr. PNEC 2030) include targets such as emission reductions and proportion of energy from renewable sources; additionally, the Roadmap for Carbon Neutrality 2050 (abbr. RNC 2050) sets out objectives for the long-term achievement of carbon neutrality. The Framework Climate Law (2021) creates carbon neutrality targets as part of national legislation.

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Spain: The Constitution (Article 45) guarantees everyone a right to an environment adequate for human development — as robust as France or Portugal.1

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Section 45 (1) Everyone has the right to enjoy an environment suitable for the development of the person, as well as the duty to preserve it. (2) The public authorities shall watch over a rational use of all natural resources with a view to protecting and improving the quality of life and preserving and restoring the environment, by relying on an indispensable collective solidarity. (3) For those who break the provisions contained in the foregoing paragraph, criminal or, where applicable, administrative sanctions shall be imposed, under the terms established by the law, and they shall be obliged to repair the damage caused.

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The State is responsible for securing this right — which is often delegated to the regions for enforcement. The Climate Change and Energy Transition Act (2021) gives legal clarity to achieve climate neutrality by 2050.2 The purpose of this law is 1) to ensure compliance by Spain with the objectives of the Paris Agreement, 2) facilitate the decarbonisation of the Spanish economy, its transition to a circular model, so as to guarantee the rational and supportive use of resources, and 3) promote adaptation to the impacts of climate change and the implementation of a sustainable development model that generates decent employment and contributes to the reduction of inequalities. This law ends new licensing for the exploration and extraction of oil and gas in the country.3 Articles 32 and 33 of the law notably establish climate risk reporting obligations on credit institutions and aim to facilitate investments in sustainable sectors in parallel. The Law on Cooperation for Sustainable Development and Global Solidarity, 2023 commits to 0.7% of Gross National Income (GNI) in Official Development Assistance (ODA) by 2030.4 The proposed Legislation on Single-Use Plastics aims to prohibit flushing of wet wipes and hold producers responsible for clean-up costs; through Law 7/2022,5 which addresses waste and contaminated land for a circular economy.

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Italy: the constitutional reform (2022), making environmental sustainability explicit in Articles 9 and 41,6 provides clear statutory protection of biological diversity and ecosystems, ensuring they are safeguarded for future generations.7

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Art. 9. The Republic promotes the development of culture and of scientific and technical research. It safeguards natural landscape and the historical and artistic heritage of the Nation.
Art. 41. Private economic enterprise is free. It may not be carried out against the common good or in such a manner that could damage safety, liberty and human dignity. The law shall provide for appropriate programmes and controls so that public and private-sector economic activity may be oriented and co-ordinated for social purposes.

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In addition, the amendment operationalises Italy’s Green Deal to its law-making framework and proposes a regulatory review in a range of economic sectors, particularly in the fields of energy and transport. The Legislative Decree No. 152/2006 (Eng. Environmental Code; Ital. Testo Unico Ambientale) introduces principles of sustainable development, precaution, and the ‘polluter pays’ principle.8 The National Sustainable Development Strategy (abbr. NSDS) 2017-2030 is explicitly linked with the 2030 Agenda9 in prioritising goal setting of decarbonisation and sustainable resource management. The National Action Plan for Policy Coherence for Sustainable Development (2022)10 further consolidates and bolsters the setting and incorporation of SDGs into national policy.11

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Greece: The Constitution regulates the following:

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Article 24. 1. The protection of the natural and cultural environment constitutes a duty of the State and a right of every person. The State is bound to adopt special preventive or repressive measures for the preservation of the environment in the context of the principle of sustainable development. Matters pertaining to the protection of forests and forest expanses in general shall be regulated by law. The compilation of a forest registry constitutes an obligation of the State. Alteration of the use of forests and forest expanses is prohibited, except where agricultural development or other uses imposed for the public interest prevail for the benefit of the national economy. […]

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Law 5164/2024 is a transposition of the EU Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (abbr. CSRD) requiring large corporates to report on their climate transition plans.12 Law 1650/1986 sets out environmental protection and sustainable development principles.13 The National Strategy for Sustainable and Just Growth 2030 seeks to complement the 2030 Agenda and chart a course for sustainable economic development.14

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Malta: Protecting environmental rights explicitly is not found in Malta’s Constitution, it is rather outlined as a duty for the State to protect and conserve the environment and natural resources.15

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9. (2) The State shall protect and conserve the environment and its resources for the benefit of the present and future generations and shall take measures to address any form of environmental degradation in Malta, including that of air, water and land, and any sort of pollution problem and to promote, nurture and support the right of action in favour of the environment.

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Nevertheless, environmental rights are still represented within legal obligations, as is required within the law at all levels of governance and in terms of individual obligations to protect the environment and sustainably manage natural resources as articulated, among others, in the Environment Protection Act (Cap. 549).16 The Climate Action Act of 2024 established a Climate Action Authority to regulate climate action and enforce climate action policies with severe penalties for offenders.17 As of the year 2023, it has reduced greenhouse gas emissions by 20.7% from the 2005 level. The National Strategy for the Environment 2050 and the Sustainable Development Strategy for 2050 provide the overall orientation in terms of long-term socio-economic development and environmental protection in Malta .18

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Cyprus: In 2024, Cyprus amended its Constitution (The Nineteenth Amendment of the Constitution; L.171(I)/2024) to recognise a right to a safe, clean, healthy, and sustainable environment with a complementary duty by the State to protect that right.19

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Article 7A. 1. Every person has the right to a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment. 2. Every person has the right to (a) have access to relevant information kept by the competent authorities of the Republic, without being subject to the obligation to prove a direct and personal legal interest as defined by law, (b) access to justice for environmental matters subject to the provisions of Article 146, and (c) effective remedy for the violation of any right resulting from this article and the relevant legislation. 3. The protection of the natural environment is an obligation of the State and for such protection the State is obliged to take preventive or repressive measures or restoration measures within the principal of sustainability.

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Most of the environmental law in Cyprus is based on European Union directives, and the directives relate to different aspects of environmental management (including waste management, air quality, water quality, and biodiversity protection).20 In 2017, Cyprus adopted its National Adaptation Strategy, subsequently followed by an action plan in 2020, which identified priority sectors for actions including water resources, coastal zone and biodiversity.21 The Low-Carbon Development Strategy provides a long-term decarbonisation pathway based on EU targets for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
 
1For the text of Spanish Constitution, see the above-mentioned source: https://www.senado.es/web/conocersenado/normas/constitucion/detalleconstitucioncompleta/index.html?lang=en
2 Ley 7/2021, de 20 de mayo, de cambio climático y transición energética. https://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-2021-8447
3

Law 7/2021 on climate change and energy transition. https://climate-laws.org/document/law-7-2021-on-climate-change-and-energy-transition_f039

López Peláez, A., Erro-Garcés, A., Aramendia-Muneta, M. E., & Ramírez Navarro, J. M. (2024). Social work, solidarity economy and decent work. International Social Work, 67(6), 1429-1434.

4 Ley 1/2023, de 20 de febrero, de Cooperación para el Desarrollo Sostenible y la Solidaridad Global
5 Ley 7/2022, de 8 de abril, de residuos y suelos contaminados para una economía circular
6For the text of Constitution of the Italian Republic, see the above-mentioned source URL: https://www.senato.it/documenti/repository/istituzione/costituzione_inglese.pdf
7Cici, C. (2022). Environmental protection enters the Italian Constitution. URL: https://www.ambrosetti.eu/en/news/environmental-protection-enters-the-italian-constitution/ (accessed 29 October 2024).
8

Decreto Legislativo 3 aprile 2006, n. 152

URL: https://www.normattiva.it/uri-res/N2Ls?urn:nir:stato:decreto.legislativo:2006-04-03;152 (accessed 29 October 2024).

Agovino, M., Cerciello, M., Garofalo, A., & Musella, G. (2024). Environmental legislation and achieving circular economy in Italy's waste sector: A shift-and-share macro-area analysis. Utilities Policy, 90, 101811.

9 National Sustainable Development Strategy. URL: https://www.mase.gov.it/portale/national-sustainable-development-strategy (accessed 29 October 2024)
10

The National Action Plan for Policy Coherence for Sustainable Development-Italy (2022) URL: https://www.agenziacoesione.gov.it/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Italy-54226722-en.pdf

https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/italy-s-national-action-plan-for-policy-coherence-for-sustainable-development_54226722-en.html (accessed 29 October 2024).

11 Cavalli, L., Sanna, S., Alibegovic, M., Arras, F., Cocco, G., Farnia, L., ... & Testa, M. (2021). Sustainable development goals and the European Cohesion Policy: an application to the autonomous Region of Sardinia. Journal of Urban Ecology, 7(1), juab038.
12

Νόμος 5164/2024 – ΦΕΚ Τεύχος Α 202/12.12.2024. https://www.odigostoupoliti.eu/nomos-5164-2024-ypovoli-ektheseon-viosimotitas-apo-tis-etaireies/ (accessed 29 October 2024).

Mandilas, A., Kourtidis, D., Florou, G., & Valsamidis, S. (2023). A framework for sustainability reporting of renewable energy companies in Greece. Sustainability, 15(19), 14360.

13

Νόμος 1650 ΦΕΚ Α΄160/16.10.1986. https://www.kodiko.gr/nomothesia/document/269310/nomos-1650-1986

Kalfas, D., Kalogiannidis, S., Chatzitheodoridis, F., & Toska, E. (2023). Urbanization and land use planning for achieving the sustainable development goals (SDGs): A case study of Greece. Urban Science, 7(2), 43.

14

Greece: National Strategy for Sustainable and Inclusive Growth

https://stip.oecd.org/stip/interactive-dashboards/policy-initiatives/2023%2Fdata%2FpolicyInitiatives%2F25535

Greece Country Profile URL: https://www.esdn.eu/country-profiles/detail?tx_countryprofile_countryprofile%5Baction%5D=show&tx_countryprofile_countryprofile%5Bcontroller%5D=Country&tx_countryprofile_countryprofile%5Bcountry%5D=12&cHash=cd46ded9e2eadb26b8ed282f5fef306c (accessed 29 October 2024).

15 Constitution of Malta. https://legislation.mt/eli/const/eng
16 Chapter 549 Environment Protection Act. https://legislation.mt/eli/cap/549/eng/
17 Chapter 643 Climate Action Act. https://legislation.mt/eli/cap/643/eng
18

Borg Axisa, G., & Borg, R. P. (2024). Climate change adaptation in Malta: assessment of skills in the built environment. International Journal of Disaster Resilience in the Built Environment, 15(4), 668-679.

Malta's Sustainable Development Strategy for 2050. URL: https://sustainabledevelopment.gov.mt/maltas-sustainable-development-strategy-for-2050/ (accessed: 29 October 2024).

19

For the text of Constitution of the Republic Of Cyprus – 1960, see the above-mentioned source: https://www.olc.gov.cy/olc/olc.nsf/translationsen_en/translationsen_en?openDocument and

https://www.olc.gov.cy/olc/olc.nsf/26097CAF0B50C8DCC2258C190023A082/$file/CONSTITUTION.pdf

20 Charalampidou, N. (2023). Environmental Law in Cyprus. (Amsterdam:Kluwer Law International). ISBN: 978-940-3535-272 (ISBN13) ISBN 9403528362 (ISBN10) E-Book ISBN: 9789403528366. Second edition.
21 National Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change 2025-2050. URL: https://www.oeb.org.cy/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/EN_National-Adaptation-Strategy-CY.pdf (accessed: 29 October 2024).
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