Finland: The Finnish Constitution has a direct connection to environmental stewardship that does not rely solely on the State but imposes an obligation on citizens as well.1

This focuses specifically on participatory rights, including an access to environmental information and access to justice; which maps quite favourably on procedural environmentalism, and has spurred community-based resistance to logging and industrial scale projects. The Climate Act (423/2022) establishes national climate aspirations and places obligations on authorities with respect to climate policy planning.2 The act outlines specific emission reduction targets of 60% by 2030, 80% by 2040, and 90% (aiming for 95%) by 2050, all compared to 1990 levels. According to the Finnish National Commission on Sustainable Development, the Sustainable Development Strategy 2022-2030 establishes that a prosperous and globally responsible Finland is for the Finns one that at the same time preserves nature’s carrying capacity.3

Sweden: While the country does not have a distinct section of environmental rights in its Constitution, it has expressed commitment to itself, the environment and future generations in its Instrument of Government (Swe. Regeringsformen) – one of Sweden’s four fundamental laws that includes the Constitution.

This constitutional commitment to sustainable development has guided Sweden’s policy development in a limited manner – however, it does not provide a strong rationale for judicial activism; legal claims related to the environment typically arise from either administrative law or compliance with laws/regulations rather than interpretation of the Constitution itself. Sweden’s Environmental Governance is from the Environmental Code,4 which consolidates over 15 environmental laws. It provides a complete context for environmental governance regarding many issues (biodiversity, pollution, land/water use, climate change etc). There are basic key principles in the Code such as general precautionary principle, best available technology (abbr. BAT), and the ‘polluter pays’ principle, which provide the Environmental Code with a preventative and restorative paradigm. A key feature of Sweden’s sustainability system is the 16 National Environmental Quality Objectives, which are cross-sectoral policy objectives.

Denmark: The Constitutional Act of Denmark does not explicitly contain environmental rights.6 The existing environmental governance based on statutory law, the Environmental Protection Act (Dan. Miljøbeskyttelsesloven), regulates pollution of air and water, waste disposal, and resource conservation.7 In addition, the 2019 Climate Act (Dan. Klimaloven)establishes legally binding commitments for the country to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 70% relative to 1990 levels by 2030 and to be a climate-neutral society by 2050.8 The vibrant (or sometimes populist) climate policy employs action plans based on sectors and subsectors of activity, such as energy, transport and agriculture, and land-use.9 The State is committed to planting 1 billion trees and converting 10% of its farmland into forest land to maximise carbon storage. The Danish Environmental Protection Agency is part of the Ministry of Environment and Gender Equality of Denmark, which was founded in 1972.10 Additionally, they will introduce a carbon tax, especially on livestock emissions in 2030, making it the first country to legislate on its agricultural emissions.11 Farms will pay about $40 per ton of emissions (carbon dioxide equivalent) above these average levels in 2030, which will rise to around $100 in 2035.

Latvia stands out among Baltic states for its clear constitutional enshrinement of environmental rights. Article 115 of the Latvian Constitution (Latv. Satversme) guarantees every citizen the right to a benevolent environment and imposes a duty on the State to protect and improve environmental quality. 12

This clause is being cited more often in administrative and constitutional court cases, especially with regard to pollution, development and public access to natural resources. The National Development Plan 2021-2027 (abbr. NDP2027; approved on 2 July 2020 by decision of the Saeima of the Republic of Latvia No. 418/Lm13) provides for a broad, integrated strategic direction for balanced development.13 Sustainability is specifically one of three key pillars of the NDP2027. Within the NDP2027, sustainability references smart and clean innovation, rural resiliency, and sustainable transport. It also includes specific targets for increasing energy efficiency, supporting green technologies, and promoting circular economy principles. Latvia’s Climate Neutrality Strategy 2050 includes EU targets for reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, with short-term milestones of a 50–55% reduction by 2030.14 The various strategies include measures as well as energy/transportation/agriculture policies supported by domestic and EU financing. Latvia has also established frameworks for green budgeting toaccount for sustainability, operationalising sustainability metrics in fiscal policy decision-making – a strategy that is in early implementation in the EU, in terms of economic governance.

Lithuania: Articles 53 and 54 in the Constitution provide a dual layer of environmental governance: Article 53 guarantees the right to health—the state obligation to protect the environment. Article 54 urges to prevent pollution and consume natural resources in a sustainable way.15

These provisions are actively enforced through courts, especially in cases about deforestation, land use conversion and industrial licensing. Importantly, Lithuania has incorporated damages for environmental harm, making Lithuania one of the few EU States to clearly establish the notion of environmental liability in constitutional law. At the policy level, the national-level National Energy and Climate Action Plan (abbr. NECAP 2019) 2021-2030 stipulates measurable emissions reductions across profile sectors, renewable energy sources integration and energy efficiency targets. It also includes green technologies and infrastructure investments in low carbon transport and smart grids. The objectives and targets set out in the plan are : 1) to ensure the quality and sustainability of the use of natural resources, 2) to mitigate Lithuania’s impact on climate change and increase its climate resilience; 3) to improve the competitiveness of the energy sector; 4) to integrate the Lithuanian natural gas market into the single EU gas market; 5) to connect the Lithuanian power system with the continental European power system for synchronous operation; 6) to ensure the adequacy of the Lithuanian electricity market and power system and increase the share of local electricity generation, 7) to increase the consumption of renewable and alternative fuels in the transport sector and promote sustainable intermodal mobility, 8) to increase the share of renewable energy sources in domestic energy production and gross final energy consumption, 8) to improve the energy efficiency and use of energy from renewable sources in residential and public buildings, etc.16 Lithuania’s Law on Environmental Protection is an important source of law establishing outlined principles including sustainable development, the right to information and environmental literacy/education. These core principles establish legal foundations for sectoral laws while retaining air quality, waste, water, and biodiversity. In 2023, Lithuania updated its Sustainable Development Strategy while asserting and promoting newer EU directives with updates to long-term goals to meet Carbon Neutrality by 2050, including matters of social inclusion and digital green transitions.17

Estonia: The environmental framework is anchored in Article 53 of the Constitution, which places a universal obligation on both the State and its citizens to protect the environment and natural resources. 18

This article is read as not simply a right but as a duty, and courts have referenced it in a number of land use, energy infrastructure, and mining decisions. For instance, the Estonian Supreme Court has referenced Article 53 to stop developments that lacked proper environmental impacts assessments or public engagement.19 The framework’s vision is laid out in, ‘Estonia 2035,’20 which is a national long-term development strategy; a development plan that takes account of and adopts all of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, while also outlining cross-sectoral goals (e.g., delayed sustainability, smart mobility, biodiversity protection, and green innovation). The plan uses unique digital tools and engagement platforms to promote transparency and citizen participation. Achievement of the goals is monitored by indicators: (i) satisfaction with the living environment (> 85% regional differences between the local governments with the highest and lowest decile; ≤ 29 percentage points); (ii) environmental trend index (up to 87); (iii) number of people who have died from poisoning, injuries, and certain other external causes per 100,000 inhabitants (≤ 31.7%). The Climate Resilient Economy Act of 2024,21 a new piece of legislation that is presently under development and partially implemented, is the legal instrument for Estonia’s climate change response to achieving climate neutrality across all sectors, and net-zero emissions by 2050; and it will ensure preservation of nature, growth of clean energy and space for growth for industries.22 The Climate Act encompasses interim targets, regulatory and oversight protocols across ministries, as well as accountability. Estonia continues to set an example by using real-time data systems to monitor air quality, deforestation and emissions, and by offering greater public access and more evidence-based policy.