Anita Boros, Gyula Koi (eds): Sustainability and Law
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4. Constitutional and legal relations to sustainability: terms, environmental constitution(alism), constitutional environment (László Vértesy)
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4.3. Sustainable Constitutionalism and Legislation Examples in EU Member States
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4.3.3. Western Europe

4.3.3. Western Europe

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In Western Europe, environmental governance encompasses a multifaceted mix of constitutional, legislative, and policy-based approaches. While some countries lack a clear constitutional provision for environmental protection, the constitution supplement laws accepted in these field, and constitutional frameworks are reflected in more substantive statutory frameworks, innovative judicial interpretations and well-thought out sustainability plans.

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France: In 2005, the adoption of the Charte de l’Environnement (Charter for the Environment) was a landmark event, which belongs to the constitutional block (bloc de constitutionnalité) of French law having the same force as the Constitution.1 Therefore, the Charter sits alongside the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the 1958 Constitution. It states fundamental principles of precaution and prevention, and public participation.2

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Article 6.: Public policies shall promote sustainable development. To this end they shall reconcile the protection and enhancement of the environment with economic development and social progress.

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The Charter is often cited by the Constitutional Council to assess consistency with legislation, but mainly on energy and infrastructure, or biodiversity. The Grenelle II Law (2010) sets very ambitious parameters for ecological transition with regard to stakeholder engagement, involvement, and public consultations.3 A key assistant to the Grenelle II Law was the Act on Energy Transition for Green Growth (2015).4 The legislative development is in line with the Paris Climate Agreement as it sets a medium-term plan to transition to renewable energy and reduce emissions in a timely manner (cut GHG emissions by 40% between 1990 and 2030 and by 75% by 2050; cut the national energy usage by at least 50% by 2050; reduce the share of fossil fuels in energy production by 30% compared to 2012; cap the total output from nuclear power at 63.2 GW and reduce France’s reliance on nuclear power from the current 75% to 50% by 2030; bring the share of renewables up to 32% of the energy mix by 2030).5 In Article 29, the Loi Énergie-Climat (2019) established ESG-reporting responsibilities for large financial organisations, which allowed increased visibility of sustainable investment.6 The Circular Economy/Microplastic Law (2020) included provisions to reduce waste and promote recycling and provided repair bonuses for textiles.7 The Citizens’ Convention on Climate (abbr. CCC) served as a compelling example of participative deliberative democracy, where 150 people selected at random made recommendations to achieve a 40% reduction in France’s net greenhouse gas emissions by 2030 to 1990 levels, while seeking to address issues of social justice.8 The CCC was created in reaction to the Yellow Vests protests about domestic economics together with climate, to fulfil on climate pledges, but, also to restore confidence with the public in the political system.9 The CCC had handed their recommendations to government in June of 2020.

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Belgium: because of its federal system the environmental responsibilities refer to the different governments and institutions at three regional levels (Flanders, Wallonia, and the Brussels-Capital Region). Article 23 of the Belgian Constitution establishes the right to a sound environment as an aspect of social and economic rights.10

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Article 7b In the exercise of their respective competences, the Federal State, the Communities and the Regions pursue the objectives of sustainable development in its social, economic and environmental aspects, taking into account the solidarity between the generations.

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Article 23 Everyone has the right to lead a life in keeping with human dignity. […] These rights include among others: […] 4° the right to the protection of a healthy environment;

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It should be noted that while the federal level offers frameworks for legislation, responsibility is gradually being seized by regional courts, administrations, to achieve standards surrounding environmental obligations. The National Energy and Climate Plan 2021-2030 (abbr. NECP1) regulates Belgium’s climate and energy goals and targets medium-term, in relation to the obligations of the EU.11 Furthermore, the plan sets out different levels of contributions to development and design by all regions, complying specifically with EU obligations and therefore reinforcing the principles of subsidiarity. The Federal Sustainable Development Strategy is a coordination mechanism to align the strategy with vertical and horizontal levels of government and the regional goals with the EU Goals associated with the EU Green Deal and the Sustainable Development Goals (abbr. SDGs).12 It is worth noting that Belgium is the leading issuer of sustainable bonds and ESG finance. Furthermore, it utilises public funding instruments to harness capital for climate-resilient infrastructure and food system and cultural sector innovation.

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The Netherlands: is often referenced as a paradigmatic case of a court compounding judicial activism for the constitutional minimalism in environmental rights.13

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Article 21 It shall be the concern of the authorities to keep the country habitable and to protect and improve the environment.

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While the Dutch Constitution mentions no express right to a healthy environment, the Dutch Supreme Court has upheld a landmark ruling of the Urgenda Foundation (2015), which required the Dutch State to do more on greenhouse gas reductions.14 The ruling found that environmental protection was grounded in human rights that are included in Article 2 (right to life) and Article 8 (the right to respect for private and family life) of the European Convention on Human Rights. At the same time, the Dutch Climate Agreement (Dut. Klimaatakkoord) is the focal point of national climate policy.15 It is a multi-stakeholder agreement among industry, civil society, and the government to achieve a 49 % reduction in emissions by 2030 (adapted now to 55 % in order to meet European Union targets). This agreement has strong commitments in different sectors such as transport, agriculture, electricity, and construction. The Netherlands is also leading on developing a circular economy through the National Programme on Circular Economy,16 and it is continuing aligning broader national planning with the Sustainable Development Goals (abbr. SDGs) with the Dutch Sustainable Development Strategy on efficiency, resilience, and equity at all levels of governance.17

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Luxembourg is yet to have explicit environmental protection as a constitutional right, although recent and ongoing political debate shows additional support for a formal constitutional amendment. There is implicit environmental protection in the constitution due to its commitment to human dignity and public interest;18 and in Art 11bis to explicitly protect natural environment with a sustainable balance and ensure the protection and welfare of animals.

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Art. 11bis. The State guarantees the protection of the human and natural environment by working to establish a sustainable balance between the conservation of nature, particularly its capacity for renewal, and meeting the needs of present and future generations. It promotes the protection and welfare of animals.

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Environmental governance occurs at the national level through a plethora of ordinary law and national strategies. The Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan (abbr. NECP2) reflects Luxembourg’s renewable energy targets, energy efficiency, and emission reduction targets with an interest in border cooperation and sustainability.19 As locally to SDGs are priority commitments around intergenerational equity, green finance, and sustainable urbanism, Sustainable Development Goals (abbr. SDGs) have been subsequently iteratively integrated into national planning beyond just the Sustainable Development Strategy.20 Luxembourg is a global leader in ESG-compliant investments (Luxembourg for Finance), which demonstrates that the financial sector can serve as a tool to leverage sustainability goals nationally and internationally.21

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Germany: Article 20a of the Basic Law (Fundamental Law (Ger. Grundgesetz) recognises the aim of environmental protection as the duty of the State and mandates it with protecting the natural basis for life for current and future generations.

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Article 20a [Protection of the natural foundations of life and animals] Mindful also of its responsibility towards future generations, the State shall protect the natural foundations of life and animals by legislation and, in accordance with law and justice, by executive and judicial action, all within the framework of the constitutional order.

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In its landmark ruling in 2021 (BVerfG, 1 BvR 2656/18), the German Federal Constitutional Court (Ger. Bundesverfassungsgericht, abbr. BVerfG) found environmentally constitutional protection to be tied to the constitutional principle of intergenerational equity, and proportionality in decision-making is breached if there is no provision for climate action or climate acts of the State.22 The 2021 ruling has been a stepstone in European constitutional environmental jurisprudence.23 At the statutory level, the Federal Climate Action Act (Ger. Bundes-Klimaschutzgesetz – abbr. KSG1, 2019) makes provisions for legally binding sectoral emissions reductions targets, annual tracking and monitoring, climate programmes, and corrective measures for where and how it falls short.24 This Act creates a degree of accountability across its ministries, and reaffirms its government’s net zero emissions commitment until 2045.
 
Figure 33. Institutions and legal relations in Germany’s Sustainable Development Strategy. Source: German Sustainable Development Strategy 2021 (in full)
https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-en/federal-government/germany-s-sustainable-development-strategy-354566
 

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Germany’s Sustainable Development Strategy, first initiated in 2002, and renewed periodically, reflects the 2030 Agenda, as well as the UN Sustainable Development Goals (abbr. SDGs).25 The Strategy is the functional instrument for cross-governance integration of German federal policy and includes quantitative indicators, inter-ministerial quality ingestion reviews and commitment.

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Austria’s constitution includes competence-based environmental clauses distributed across various constitutional acts and sectoral laws, limiting overall cohesion. As a federal republic, the Federal Ministry for Climate Action, Environment, Energy, Mobility, Innovation and Technology is mainly responsible for environment and climate change policy. The Environment Agency Austria oversees policy implementation. State authorities are responsible for the following: (i) within the realm of health policy, the federal level has legislative and executive competences on air pollution, waste (especially dangerous waste) and other types of pollution caused by the exceeding of pollution limits (Art. 10(12) Constitution) as well as environmental impact assessments for large scale infrastructure projects (Art. 10(9) Constitution); (ii) legislative competence for environmental impact assessments for projects that are potentially harmful for the environment. (Art. 11(7) Constitution); (iii) where uniform standards are necessary, the federal level has the legislative competence to set emission limits for air pollution (Art. 11(5) Constitution). Each Land has its own law on nature conservation (Ger. Naturschutzgesetz). (Art. 15 Constitution).26 The Federal Constitutional Law contains a provision on financial sustainability: 27

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Article 13. (2) The Federation, the provinces and the municipalities must aim at the securement of an overall balance and sustainable balanced budgets in the conduct of their economic affairs. They have to coordinate their budgeting with regard to these goals.

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However, courts have employed these norms more often in court review of administrative decisions, especially decisions related to air emission levels from industry, development of infrastructure, and noise regulation. The Climate Protection Act (Ger. Klimaschutzgesetz, KSG2) set a national target for greenhouse gas emissions reduction and processes for assessing achievement at both Federal and provincial levels of government.28 The Act lays down GHG emission thresholds for six sectors not covered under the EU ETS for the period 2008-2012, as well as waste, energy and industry not covered under the EU ETS, fluorinated gas, buildings, agriculture, and transportation for the period 2013-2020. Article 4 creates a National Climate Protection Committee, comprised of representatives of the Lander, federal ministries involved in climate change (Environment, Finance, Economic, Transport, Health, and Justice) and representatives from trade unions, industry, and agricultural associations.29 Climate neutrality by 2040 is promised by Austria, so it will be very important to hit the target for 2040. Austria's Sustainable Development Strategy, with its aim of horizontal policy integration, seeks environmental equity, environmental innovation, and social inclusion, with strategies on energy, biodiversity, and resource efficiency helping to push this work forward.

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Ireland serves as a jurisdiction that demonstrates how evolving judicial interpretation combined with legislative change can create a constitutional environmental identity. The Irish Constitution does not enshrine environmental rights, but a historic 2020 Supreme Court ruling in Friends of the Irish Environment v. Government of Ireland notes that considerations of environmental protection may be implicitly served by another framed right.30 The Court not only acknowledged a new right, but the case also helped instigate public debate and discussion in Parliament about constitutional reform in a variety of forms. The Climate Action and Low Carbon Development (Amendment) Act 2021 specifically represents on the one hand, a greater commitment by the Irish government to climate neutrality by 2050,31 to five yearly carbon budgets, and on the other hand, the designation of the Climate Change Advisory Council as a body to oversee this commitment.32 The [2021] Act is considered a significant improvement over the 2015 Act. Ireland’s National Sustainable Development Strategy aligns the implementation of policy with the 2030 Agenda. It identifies sustainability and recognises the inter-departmental approach to sustainability.33 It identifies several major themes including biodiversity, climate resilience, and social equity, with specific emphasis on sustainability in the rural economy and green innovation. In 2023, the Citizens Assembly on Biodiversity Loss recommended that a referendum be held on inserting environmental human rights and Rights of Nature into the Constitution.34
 
1 LOI constitutionnelle n° 2005-205 du 1er mars 2005 relative à la Charte de l'environnement https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/contenu/menu/droit-national-en-vigueur/constitution/charte-de-l-environnement
2

Malet-Vigneaux, J., & Jolivet, S. (2022). La Charte de l’environnement devant les juges administratifs et judiciaires. Revue juridique de l'environnement, 47, 841-855.

Hellner, A., & Epstein, Y. (2023). Allocation of Institutional Responsibility for Climate Change Mitigation: Judicial Application of Constitutional Environmental Provisions in the European Climate Cases Arctic Oil, Neubauer, and l’Affaire du siècle. Journal of environmental law, 35(2), 207-227.

3 LOI n° 2010-788 du 12 juillet 2010 portant engagement national pour l'environnement (1); Dernière mise à jour des données de ce texte : 27 octobre 2021; NOR : DEVX0822225L
4 LOI n° 2015-992 du 17 août 2015 relative à la transition énergétique pour la croissance verte (rectificatif); NOR : DEVX1413992Z
5 Law no. 2015-992 on Energy Transition for Green Growth (Energy Transition Law) https://climate-laws.org/document/law-no-2015-992-on-energy-transition-for-green-growth-energy-transition-law_aea3
6 LOI n° 2019-1147 du 8 novembre 2019 relative à l'énergie et au climat; Dernière mise à jour des données de ce texte : 25 août 2021; NOR : TREX1911204L
7 LOI n° 2020-105 du 10 février 2020 relative à la lutte contre le gaspillage et à l'économie circulaire; Dernière mise à jour des données de ce texte : 17 novembre 2021; NOR : TREP1902395L
8

Fabre, A., Apouey, B., Douenne, T., Fourniau, J. M., Giraudet, L. G., Laslier, J. F., & Tournus, S. (2021). ‘Who are the Citizens of the French Convention for Climate?’ Paris School of Ecomics Working Paper N° 2021 – 39.

Martin, M., & Islar, M. (2021). The ‘end of the world’vs. the ‘end of the month:’ understanding social resistance to sustainability transition agendas, a lesson from the Yellow Vests in France. Sustainability Science, 16(2), 601-614.

9 Fillieule, O., & Dafflon, A. (2022). ‘Yellow vests movement in France.’ In: The Wiley-Blackwell encyclopedia of social and political movements, 1-6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470674871.wbespm663 (accessed 29 October 2024).
10For the text of The Belgian Constitution, see the above-mentioned source. https://www.dekamer.be/kvvcr/pdf_sections/publications/constitution/GrondwetUK.pdf
11

National Energy and Climate Plan 2021-2030. URL: https://www.nationalenergyclimateplan.be/en (accessed 29 October 2024).

Van de Graaf, T., Laes, E., & Verbruggen, A. (2022). Energy governance in Belgium. In: Knodt, M., Kemmerzelt, J. (eds.). Handbook of Energy Governance in Europe. (Cham:Springer International Publishing). 511-532. ISBN: 978-3030-4324-92 (ISBN13) ISBN: 3030-432-491 (ISBN10).

Coppens, L., Gargiulo, M., Orsini, M., & Arnould, N. (2022). Achieving− 55% GHG emissions in 2030 in Wallonia, Belgium: Insights from the TIMES-Wal energy system model. Energy Policy, 164, 112871.

12 Federal Plan for Sustainable Development - in a Nutshell. Three guidelines and six action themes for the federal government. https://www.developpementdurable.be/sites/default/files/content/fpdo_eng_22_v2.pdf
13 For the text of The Constitution of the Kingdom of the Netherlands 2018, see. https://www.government.nl/binaries/government/documenten/reports/2019/02/28/the-constitution-of-the-kingdom-of-the-netherlands/WEB_119406_Grondwet_Koninkrijk_ENG.pdf
14 Meguro, M. (2020). State of the Netherlands v. Urgenda Foundation. American Journal of International Law, 114(4), 729-735.; Wewerinke‐Singh, M., & McCoach, A. (2021). The State of the Netherlands v Urgenda Foundation: Distilling best practice and lessons learnt for future rights‐based climate litigation. Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law, 30(2), 275-283.
15

National Climate Agreement. URL: https://climate-laws.org/documents/national-climate-agreement_1b62?id=national-climate-agreement_aecf (accessed 29 October 2024).

Van der Veen, G. A., & de Graaf, K. J. (2020). Climate Litigation, Climate Act and Climate Agreement in the Netherlands. In: European Energy Law Report XIII. (Cambridge: Intersentia. 457-459. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781780689487.025

16 vVan Langen, S. K., & Passaro, R. (2021). The Dutch green deals policy and its applicability to circular economy policies. Sustainability, 13(21), 11683.
17

Liefferink, D. (2023). ‘The Dutch national plan for sustainable society.’ In: Vig, N. J., Axelrod, R. S. (eds.). The Global Environment. (London:Routledge). 256-278. eBook ISBN: 9781003421368 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003421368

The Netherlands and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). URL: https://www.government.nl/topics/united-nations/sustainable-development-goals (accessed 29 October 2024).

18 Constitution du Grand-Duché de Luxembourg. Version consolidée applicable au 19/05/2020: https://legilux.public.lu/eli/etat/leg/constitution/1868/10/17/n1/consolide/20200519
19

Luxembourg's integrated national energy and climate plan for the period 2021-2030 (PNEC). URL: https://gouvernement.lu/en/dossiers/2023/2023-pnec.html (accessed 29 October 2024).

Luxembourg's energy and climate policy: Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan (NECP). URL: https://www.klima-agence.lu/en/luxembourgs-energy-and-climate-policy-integrated-national-energy-and-climate-plan-necp (accessed 29 October 2024).

20 Sustainable development -The circular economyan important tool for achieving key sustainable development goals. URL: https://economie-circulaire.public.lu/en/circular-economy/sustainable-development.html (accessed 29 October 2024).
21 Yansenne, J. (2024). ESG and director liability under Luxembourg law: what are the risks?. Revue pratique de droit des affaires, 20(1), 1-16.
22 Hofer, M. (2022). Intertemporale Dimensionen des Klimaschutzes–Grundrechtsgeltung zwischen „Freiheitssicherung “und Vertrauensschutz. Journal für Rechtspolitik, 30(3), 275-284.
23

Bundesverfassungsgericht-Order of 24 March 2021

https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/EN/2021/03/rs20210324_1bvr265618en.html (accessed 29 October 2024)

Neubauer et al. v Germany, Case No. BvR 2656/18/1, BvR 78/20/1, BvR 96/20/1, BvR 288/20 – Germany;

URL:https://www.acrisl.org/casenotes/m2ll8m8skjpglk8-83mk2-k5yza-dcafy-x5ztr-bjfxk-c9y55-5ryfp (accessed 29 October 2024).

24 Federal Climate Action Act of 12 December 2019 (Federal Law Gazette I, p. 2513), as last amended by Article 1 of the Act of 15 July 2024 (Federal Law Gazette I No. 235) https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_ksg/englisch_ksg.html
25

For the text of Germany's Sustainable Development Strategy, see the above-mentioned source: URL: https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-en/federal-government/germany-s-sustainable-development-strategy-354566 (accessed 29 October 2024);

Weiland, S., Hickmann, T., Lederer, M., & Schwindenhammer, S. (2021). The 2030 agenda for sustainable development: transformative change through the sustainable development goals? Politics and Governance, 9(1), 90-95.;

Scholz, I., Keijzer, N., & Richerzhagen, C. (2016). Promoting the sustainable development goals in Germany (No. 13/2016). Discussion Paper.

26 For the text of Austria - Environment & the Fight against Climate Change, see the above-mentioned source: https://portal.cor.europa.eu/divisionpowers/Pages/Austria-Environment.aspx
27

Austria the Federal Constitutional Law of 1920 as amended in 1929 as to Law No. 153/2004, December 30, 2004

https://www.ris.bka.gv.at/Dokument.wxe?ResultFunctionToken=fcbed777-a282-49c6-98d7-30058ad7e1f5&Position=1&SkipToDocumentPage=True&Abfrage=Erv&Titel=federal+Constitutional&Quelle=&ImRisSeitVonDatum=&ImRisSeitBisDatum=&ImRisSeit=Undefined&ResultPageSize=100&Suchworte=&Dokumentnummer=ERV_1930_1

Austria the Federal Constitutional Law of 1920 as amended in 1929 as to Law No. 153/2004, December 30, 2004

https://constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/Austria%20_FULL_%20Constitution.pdf

28

Bundesgesetz zur Einhaltung von Höchstmengen von Treibhausgasemissionen und zur Erarbeitung von wirksamen Maßnahmen zum Klimaschutz (Klimaschutzgesetz – KSG); Bundesrecht konsolidiert: Gesamte Rechtsvorschrift für Klimaschutzgesetz, Fassung vom 07.07.2025

https://www.ris.bka.gv.at/GeltendeFassung.wxe?Abfrage=Bundesnormen&Gesetzesnummer=20007500

29 Climate Protection Act (Klimaschutzgesetz). https://climate-laws.org/document/climate-protection-act-klimaschutzgeset_7307
30

Kelleher, O. (2021). A critical appraisal of Friends of the Irish Environment v Government of Ireland. Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law, 30(1), 138-146.

Renglet, C. (2020). The Decision of the Irish Supreme Court in Friends of the Irish Environment v Ireland. Carbon & Climate Law Review, 14(3), 163-176.

31 Climate Action and Low Carbon Development (Amendment) Act 2021. URL: https://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/2021/act/32/section/15/enacted/en/html (accessed 29 October 2024).
32

Tallon, G., Turner, S., & Thorgeirsson, H. (2020, December). Independent Evaluation of the Climate Change Advisory Council. URL: https://www.climatecouncil.ie/media/climatechangeadvisorycouncil/contentassets/documents/news/Independent%20Evaluation%20of%20the%20Climate%20Change%20Advisory%20Council%20.pdf (accessed 29 October 2024).

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The Climate Change Advisory Council-An Chomhairle Chomhairleach um Athrú Aeráide. URL: https://www.climatecouncil.ie/ (accessed 29 October 2024).
33

National Implementation Plan for the Sustainable Development Goals 2022-2024. URL: https://www.gov.ie/en/department-of-climate-energy-and-the-environment/publications/national-implementation-plan-for-the-sustainable-development-goals-2022-2024/ and

https://www.gov.ie/en/department-of-climate-energy-and-the-environment/policy-information/sustainable-development-goals/ (accessed 29 October 2024).

Transforming Our World-The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. URL: https://www.ireland.ie/en/un/newyork/development/transforming-our-world-the-2030-agenda-for-sustainable-development/ (accessed 29 October 2024).

34

CEJ Report: Constitutionalising Environmental Rights - Practical Insights into the Irish Context. URL: https://www.maynoothuniversity.ie/news-events/cej-report-constitutionalising-environmental-rights-practical-insights-irish-context (accessed 29 October 2024).

Constitutionalising Environmental Rights - Practical Insights into the Irish Context. URL: https://communitylawandmediation.ie/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/CLM-Report-Right-to-a-healthy-environment-Report-online.pdf (accessed 29 October 2024)

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