Anita Boros, Gyula Koi (eds): Sustainability and Law
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4. Constitutional and legal relations to sustainability: terms, environmental constitution(alism), constitutional environment (László Vértesy)
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4.3. Sustainable Constitutionalism and Legislation Examples in EU Member States
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4.3.4. Central and Eastern Europe

4.3.4. Central and Eastern Europe

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Central and Eastern European countries show variety of responses but are becoming more reliant on constitutional arrangements through innovation by the judiciary and embedding measures through legislation.

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Poland: The constitutional framework recognises the importance of environmental protection and sustainable development. Article 5 and 74 of the Constitution of Poland imposes upon public authorities the obligation of working to provide policies that ensure environmental security.1

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Article 5 The Republic of Poland shall safeguard the independence and integrity of its territory and ensure the freedoms and rights of persons and citizens, the security of the citizens, safeguard the national heritage and shall ensure the protection of the natural environment pursuant to the principles of sustainable development.
Article 74 1. Public authorities shall pursue policies ensuring the ecological security of current and future generations. 2. Protection of the environment shall be the duty of public authorities. 3. Everyone shall have the right to be informed of the quality of the environment and its protection. 4. Public authorities shall support the activities of citizens to protect and improve the quality of the environment.
Article 86 Everyone shall care for the quality of the environment and shall be held responsible for causing its degradation. The principles of such responsibility shall be specified by statute.

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Judicial reliance on Article 74 is sporadic, and mostly it is the tribunal that makes decisions related to energy infrastructure, agricultural pollution or access to environmental information. The Energy Policy of Poland until 2040 (abbr. EPP2040) remains the primary planning instrument for Poland’s transition to energy, which deals with greater energy security, diversification of energy supply, development of nuclear power, and a reduction in coal dependence.2 Poland’s Sustainable Development Strategy has social, economic, and environmental priorities, community and rural development, digital green innovation and improving energy efficiency.3 It is an overall strategy that is supported by sector-specific action plans that access EU cohesion and recovery funds.

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Czech Republic: The Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms, as an integral part of the Czech Republic’s legal system, establishes guarantees of a right to a favourable environment in addition to being able to obtain remedies.4

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Article 35 (1) Everyone has the right to a favourable environment. (2) Everyone has the right to timely and complete information about the state of the environment and natural resources. (3) No one may, in exercising her rights, endanger or cause damage to the environment, natural resources, the wealth of natural species, or cultural monuments beyond the extent set by a law.

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Courts have rarely referred to this provision, but there has been a steady increase in both grants of access to courts under this provision in cases related to urban development, water resources and industrial licensing cases, showing a minimal yet positive shift towards enforcing environmental rights. The Climate Protection Policy (adopted in 2017) allows administrated emissions reduction at a national level, expands renewable energy sources, diversifies climate mitigation, aligns with EU climate change mitigation targets and offers strategies for alternative emission reduction strategies such as sustainable transport, alternative transport modes and sustainable agriculture. The policy seeks to cut greenhouse gas emissions by a target of at least 32 Mt CO2-eq by 2020, and 44 Mt CO2-eq by 2030, compared to 2005 levels. The policy sets a vision of a low-emission economy in 2050, with indicative targets of 70 Mt CO2-eq emissions in 2040 and 39 Mt CO2-eq in 2050.5 Likewise, the Czech Sustainable Development Strategy is an overall source of sustainable development with sectoral coherence, prioritising continued climate resilience priority, efficient use of land, sustainable infrastructure, and favouring circular economy principles.6

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Slovakia: The constitution of Slovakia (similar to that of Poland) recognises the environmental, while judicial interpretation is still inconsistent and not actively enforced.7

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Article 44 (1) Everyone shall have the right to favourable environment. (2) Everyone shall have a duty to protect and improve the environment and to foster cultural heritage. (3) No one shall imperil or damage the environment, natural resources and cultural heritage beyond the limits laid down by law. (4) The State shall care for economical exploitation of natural resources, for ecological balance and on effective environmental policy, and shall secure protection of determined species of wild plants and wild animals.” (5) Details on the rights and duties according to paragraphs 1 to 4 shall be laid down by a law.

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Environmental protection is a comparative term related to other broader public interest or human rights. The Low-Carbon Development Strategy (LTS) includes a long-term strategic plan for reducing overall greenhouse gas emissions, a innovative path to implementing climate action, transformation of energy systems, electrification of transportation, and decarbonisation of industry, which intends an overall reduction of at least 80% in emissions by 2050.8 The Slovak Sustainable Development Strategy directs the three dimensions of sustainability that needs to be represented in the planning, which emphasises resilience, innovation and equitable development.9

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Hungary: The Fundamental Law of Hungary (2011) highlights the obligation to respect the environment and future generations. The responsibilities tied to sustainability and future generations. While the Constitution states compelling things in respect to protecting future generations, there have been mixed results in enforcement.

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Article P) (1) Natural resources, in particular arable land, forests and the reserves of water; biodiversity, in particular native plant and animal species; and cultural artefacts, shall form the common heritage of the nation, it shall be the obligation of the State and everyone to protect and maintain them, and to preserve them for future generations. (2) The limits and conditions for acquisition of ownership and for use of arable land and forests that are necessary for achieving the objectives referred to in paragraph (1), as well as the rules concerning the organisation of integrated agricultural production and concerning family farms and other agricultural holdings, shall be laid down in a cardinal Act.
Article N) (1) Hungary shall observe the principle of balanced, transparent and sustainable budget management.
Article Q) (1) In order to create and maintain peace and security, and to achieve the sustainable development of humanity, Hungary shall strive for cooperation with all the peoples and countries of the world.
Article XVII (1) Employees and employers shall cooperate with each other with a view to ensuring jobs and the sustainability of national economy, and to other community goals.

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The Constitutional Court occasionally referenced Article P in eco-related cases, but again, it is challenging to gauge how often and to what extent Article P is enforced. The Deputy Commissioner for Fundamental Rights responsible for the protection of the interests of future generations shall monitor the enforcement of the mentioned interests.10 The detailed principles are laid down in Act No. LIII. of 1996 on Nature Conservation in Hungary, and in Act LIII of 1995 on the General Rules of Environmental Protection.

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Slovenia: Article 72 of the Slovenian Constitution explicitly recognises environmental protection as both a right and a duty, for drinking water sustainability set by Article 70a.11

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Article 70a (Right to Drinking Water) Everyone has the right to drinking water. […] As a priority and in a sustainable manner, water resources shall be used to supply the population with drinking water and water for household use and in this respect shall not be a market commodity. […] The supply of the population with drinking water and water for household use shall be ensured by the State through self-governing local communities directly and on a not-for-profit basis.
Article 72 (Healthy Living Environment) Everyone has the right in accordance with the law to a healthy living environment. The State shall promote a healthy living environment. To this end, the conditions and manner in which economic and other activities are pursued shall be established by law. The law shall establish under which conditions and to what extent a person who has damaged the living environment is obliged to provide compensation. The protection of animals from cruelty shall be regulated by law.

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The Constitutional Court of Slovenia has used this article to halt major infrastructure projects that failed to meet environmental standards or procedural transparency, and to compel legislative action on climate measures. Slovenia’s Climate Strategy 2050 outlines pathways for achieving climate neutrality, promoting decarbonisation in energy, transport, industry, and agriculture.12 It includes sector-specific milestones and only transition principles. The country’s Sustainable Development Strategy aligns with EU policy goals and emphasises integrated development, balancing environmental protection with social cohesion and innovation.

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Croatia: The Constitution of the Republic of Croatia protects environmental protection as one of the fundamental values of the Constitution. Under Article 3, one of the highest constitutional values is protecting nature and the human environment. Article 52 also requires special protection for natural resources and natural assets of ecological importance. Article 69 guarantees the right to life in a healthy environment to citizens of the Republic of Croatia, as well as obligates the State to ensure the conditions for a healthy environment.13

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Article 3 Freedom, equal rights, […], conservation of nature and the environment, […] are the highest values of the constitutional order of the Republic of Croatia and the basis for interpreting the Constitution.
Article 52 The sea, seashore, islands, waters, air space, mineral resources, and other natural resources, as well as land, forests, flora and fauna, other components of the natural environment, real estate and items of particular cultural, historical, economic or ecological significance which are specified by law to be of interest to the Republic of Croatia shall enjoy its special protection.
Article 69 […] The State shall ensure conditions for a healthy environment. Everyone shall, within the scope of his/her powers and activities, accord particular attention to the protection of human health, nature and the human environment.

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The Environmental Protection Act is the main act in the environmental system in Croatia, and it outlines principles of sustainable development, prevention of pollution, and rational use of natural resources.14 Other acts, such as protected species act, or the Nature Protection Act also outline conservation of biodiversity, or in their primary focus the preservation of natural habitats.15

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Romania: The Romanian law acknowledges the constitutionalisation of environmental rights in principles and other rights, including the right to a healthy environment, and a legal duty of the State in relation to environmental management.16

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ARTICLE 35 Right to a healthy environment. (1) The State shall acknowledge the right of every person to a healthy, well preserved and balanced environment. (2) The State shall provide the legislative framework for the exercise of such right. (3) Natural and legal entities shall be bound to protect and improve the environment.
Economy ARTICLE 135 (2) The State must secure: e) environmental protection and recovery, as well as preservation of the ecological balance; 

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The Constitution outlines rights and principles which are supported by the range of legislative provisions, with reference to the Environmental Protection Law,17 Water Law,18 and Forestry Code;19 - these laws provide mechanisms to control air and water pollution, and provide for the sustainable use and development of water resources and forests.20 The policies relevant to climate change in strategic documents refer to climate change mitigation in relation to the National Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change: 2024-2030 (abbr. SNASC),21 which proposes the picture of Romania’s sectoral development in the coming decades in the light of the following scenarios: (i) no adaptation measures are taken (baseline scenario) ; (ii) adaptation measures are adopted, within the framework provided by global climate scenarios. The Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan (abbr. NECP3): 2025-2030 makes ambitious commitments of reducing greenhouse emissions in absolute terms 78% by 2030, and achieving carbon neutrality by 2050 with 63 policies and measures, including renewable energy sources, electricity, solar power, wind, transportation, heating and cooling.22 The Sustainable Development Strategy for Romania (Horizon 2030, adopted by the Government Decision 877/2018) provides a connection between national policies and the UN SDGs.

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Bulgaria is not merely committed to environmental protection; it is constitutionally obliged to take environmental protection seriously. Bulgaria is committed to preserving and managing its natural resources responsibly, sustainably, and ecologically.23

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Art. 15. The Republic of Bulgaria shall ensure the protection and reproduction of the environment, the conservation of living Nature in all its variety, and the sensible utilisation of the country’s natural and other resources.
Art. 55. Everyone shall have the right to a healthy and favourable environment corresponding to established standards and norms. They shall protect the environment.

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Over the past few years, Bulgaria has adopted some major foundational legislation that deals with addressing the increased challenges of environmental protection such as the Environmental Protection Act (2002); the Biological Diversity Act (2002), the Climate Changes Mitigation Act (from 2014, which was updated in 2024).24 Bulgaria has a defined document that is being used to structure its climate response efforts. The 3rd National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan (2019-2030) outlines sectors’ responsibilities to adapt in the face of climate risks.25 The accompanying Long-Term Climate Change Mitigation Strategy (2022) is the country’s pathway to emissions targets, and a low-carbon future.26 The updated (2024) National Energy and Climate Plan (abbr. NECP4) is the complete package to help the country pivot towards the above commitments—on the timing to moderate the rise in emmissions, increase renewables, and energy efficiency, towards broader EU climate commitments.27

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The emergence of environmental constitutionalism within the EU27 marks a massive transition in both the legal and democratic modalities of governance. The constitutional embedding of ecological norms performs a variety of roles: (i) normative anchoring of sustainability and inter-generational justice; (ii) enlarging the justiciability of environmental claims in the national hubs of judiciary power; (iii) inter-objective alignment with international obligations, such as the Paris Agreement and the Aarhus Convention; and (iv) institutional accountability to both legislative and executive government forms. While divergent approaches exist - from bold declarative rights and institutional arrangements to subdued legislative dependent on executive rights - there is no mistaking that the direction towards constitutional protection of the environment is stronger than ever before. We will likely see further integration, such as a European Charter of Environmental Rights, gaining advantage of this momentum and connecting national constitutions with the EU’s green ambitions.
 

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Figure 34. Environmental rights/duties in constitutions. Source: Compiled by the author
Country
Constitutional Provision
Constitutional Approach
Judicial Enforcement
France
Charte de l’Environnement (2005)
Explicit, enforceable charter; Precautionary & ‘polluter pays’ principles; enforceable by Constitutional Council
Constitutional Council
Italy
Articles 9 & 41 (2022 amendment)
Explicit, recent inclusion; Explicit reference to future generations, biodiversity; green conditions for economic activity
Post-2022 jurisprudence
Portugal
Article 66 (1976)
Early and comprehensive; Right to healthy environment; state duty to protect and ensure sustainability
Administrative courts
Spain
Article 45
General declaratory clause
Limited
Greece
Art. 24
State and individual duties; strong court enforcement against unsustainable land use
Yes
Finland
Section 20
Rights & participatory guarantees; Environmental and biodiversity protection; strong procedural and participatory rights
Administrative and constitutional
Sweden
Instrument of Government (non-specific)
Procedural alignment, weak judiciary role
Limited
Latvia
Article 115
Explicit right; Right to “benevolent” environment; guarantees access to information and preservation duties
Moderate
Lithuania
Articles 53 & 54
Explicit duties and rights; Pollution prevention and nature protection; duties on individuals and State
Increasing
Estonia
Article 53
Collective duty provision; Duty for all to protect environment; basis for state sustainability obligations
Active use
Germany
Article 20a
Procedural with strong judicial activism; Climate duty interpreted as part of constitutional liberty for future generations
Major 2021 ruling
Austria
Scattered across various acts
Fragmented constitutional norms
Occasional
Czech Republic
Charter of Rights – environment guarantee
Legal remedy and environmental rights; Right to favourable environment; access to legal remedies guaranteed
Land use cases
Slovenia
Article 72
Enforceable right; Right to healthy environment; constitutional court decisions enforce ecological protection
Active enforcement
Slovakia
Environmental mention, limited enforcement
General mention, weak judiciary role
Low
Poland
Article 74
Moderate judicial application
Moderate
Netherlands
No explicit clause, Urgenda ruling key
Judicial activism, no constitutional text
Landmark Urgenda case
Belgium
Article 23
Federal and regional guarantees
Moderate – regional
Ireland
No explicit clause, evolving judicial stance
Judicially implied right
Emerging
Luxembourg
Implicit, discussed for reform
Implicit, legislative reliance
Rare, under debate
1 The Constitution of the Republic of Poland. URL: https://www.sejm.gov.pl/prawo/konst/angielski/kon1.htm (accessed 29 October 2024).
2 Energy Policy of Poland until 2040 (EPP2040) URL: https://www.gov.pl/web/climate/energy-policy-of-poland-until-2040-epp2040 (accessed 29 October 2024).
3 Sustainable Development Goals URL: https://www.gov.pl/web/polishaid/sustainable-development-goals (accessed 29 October 2024).
4 Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms; Resolution of the Presidium of the Czech National Council of 16 December 1992 on the declaration of the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms as a part of the constitutional order of the Czech Republic Constitutional act No. 2/1993 Coll. https://www.usoud.cz/fileadmin/user_upload/ustavni_soud_www/Pravni_uprava/AJ/Listina_English_version.pdf
5

Čábelková, I., Smutka, L., & Strielkowski, W. (2022). Public support for sustainable development and environmental policy: A case of the Czech Republic. Sustainable Development, 30(1), 110-126.

Durdovic, M., Kolářová, M., & Čermák, D. (2025). Public resistance to climate policy amid energy crisis and populism: The case of the European Green Deal in the Czech Republic. Energy Research & Social Science, 123, 104033.

6 Sustainable Development. URL: https://www.czechia.eu/sustainable-development/ (accessed 29 October 2024).
7 Constitution of the Slovak Republic. https://www.prezident.sk/upload-files/46422.pdf
8 Low-Carbon Development Strategy of the Slovak Republic until 2030 with a View to 2050. URL: https://www.minzp.sk/files/oblasti/politika-zmeny-klimy/low-carbon-development-strategy-slovak-republic.pdf (accessed 29 October 2024).
9

Dzikuć, M., Wyrobek, J., & Popławski, Ł. (2021). Economic determinants of low-carbon development in the visegrad group countries. Energies, 14(13), 3823.

Horváth, J., & Szemesová, J. (2023). Is a carbon-neutral pathway in road transport possible? A case study from Slovakia. Sustainability, 15(16), 12246.

10 The Ombudsman Act - Act CXI of 2011 on the Commissioner for Fundamental Rights https://www.ajbh.hu/web/ajbh-en/act-cxi-of-2011
11 The Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia. https://www.varuh-rs.si/en/about-us/legal-framework/the-constitution-of-the-republic-of-slovenia/
12 Slovenia's climate action strategy - Roadmap to EU climate neutrality – Scrutiny of Member States. URL: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2025/769559/EPRS_BRI(2025)769559_EN.pdf (accessed 29 October 2024).
13 The Constitution of the Republic of Croatia as of 15 January 2014; Consolidated text, Official Gazette Nos 56/90, 135/97, 113/00, 28/01, 76/10 and 5/14 https://www.usud.hr/sites/default/files/dokumenti/The_consolidated_text_of_the_Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_Croatia_as_of_15_January_2014.pdf
14 Environmental Protection Act. Class: 011-01/13-01/150. Reg.No: 71-05-03/1-13-2 https://mvep.gov.hr/UserDocsImages/files/file/dokumenti/prevodenje/zakoni/zakon-o-zastiti-okolisa-nn-80-13-eng.pdf
15

Radovic, J. (2023). Republic of Croatia. Nature Conservation in Europe: Approaches and Lessons.In: Tucker, G. (ed.). Nature conservation in Europe. Approaches and Lessons. (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press). 200-218. ISBN: 9781108654647 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108654647

Pavelić, I., & Matijević, M. M. (2021). The right to protect the environment and the implementation of its principles to the constitution of the Republic of Croatia. URL: https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2022-05/Recognition-Summary-FINAL.pdf (accessed 29 October 2024).

16 The Constitution of Romania. https://www.presidency.ro/en/the-constitution-of-romania
17 For the text of Law No. 137/December 29, 1995 Law on the environmental protection, see: https://www.cdep.ro/legislatie/eng/vol19eng.pdf
18 Law No. 107/September 25, 1996 Water Law https://www.cdep.ro/legislatie/eng/vol28eng.pdf
19 Law No. 46/2008 Forestry Code.
20 Ulman, S. R., & Dobay, K. M. (2020). Environmental protection in Romania: perceptions versus active participation. Environmental Engineering & Management Journal (EEMJ), 19(2).
21 National Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change (SNASC) for the period 2024-2030, with a perspective of 2050. URL: https://climate-laws.org/documents/national-strategy-on-adaptation-to-climate-change-snasc-for-the-period-2024-2030-with-a-perspective-of-2050_600e?id=national-strategy-on-adaptation-to-climate-change-snasc-for-the-period-2024-2030-with-a-perspective-of-2050_7908 (accessed 29 October 2024).
22 Romania’s Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan 2021-2030 update. URL: https://rpia.ro/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/RPIA-NECP-eng.pdf (accessed 29 October 2024).
23 Constitution of Bulgaria. https://www.parliament.bg/en/const
24

Environmental Protection Act https://www.moew.government.bg/en/environmental-protection-act-7628/

Biological Diversity Act https://eea.government.bg/bg/legislation/biodiversity/ZBR_en_26_07_2016.pdf

Climate Changes Mitigation Act https://www.moew.government.bg/static/media/ups/articles/attachments/Climate_Change_Mitigation_Actb79ac7271ff39de8cf1d9459a418e3f0.pdf

25

National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan URL: https://www.moew.government.bg/static/media/ups/categories/attachments/Strategy%20and%20Action%20Plan%20-%20Full%20Report%20-%20%20ENd3b215dfec16a8be016bfa529bcb6936.pdf (accessed 29 October 2024).

Atanasova, A., & Naydenov, K. (2025). Perceptions of the Barriers to the Implementation of a Successful Climate Change Policy in Bulgaria. Climate, 13(2), 40.

26 Bocheva, L., Malcheva, K., & Chervenkov, H. (2023). Recent climate assessment and future climate change in Bulgaria – brief analysis. International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference: SGEM, 23(4.1), 323-330.
27

Kostova-Ivanova, D. (2022). Overview of the Bulgarian national energy transition targets by sectors. Scientific Papers. Series E. Land Reclamation, Earth Observation & Surveying, Environmental Engineering, 11.

Vitkov, N. (2024, September). Evolution of Bulgarian Energy and Climate Policy in Recent Years. In 2024 16th Electrical Engineering Faculty Conference (BulEF) IEEE. 1-4.

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