4.1. The underlying theoretical background of the criteria

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Cherry (2021) refers to Babakr and notes that “formal operational stage is the fourth and final stage of Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development” and “begins at approximately age 12 and lasts into adulthood”. Cherry (2021) refers to Jeon, Draney, Wilson et al. and notes that “Piaget believed that deductive reasoning becomes necessary during the formal operational stage”. According to Jeon, Draney, Wilson et al. (2020), “deductive reasoning is a logical process where a conclusion is drawn based on the concordance of multiple premises that are generally presumed to be true”. Murphy (2022) compares deductive logic to inductive logic, and argues that “in any deductive system one ‘moves from truths to further truths’”, whereas “in inductive logic, on the other hand, one moves from probabilities to further probabilities”. In effect, deductive reasoning is an innate trait of humans. If we thoroughly examine any foreign language course book before the appearance of the direct method, we can conclude that a deductive way of thinking has influenced every single aspect of the grammar-translation method.
 
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