Songul Dogan Ger: Developing Students’ Cultural Diversity Awareness and Intercultural Communicative Competence in English Classes
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2 Theoretical and Empirical Background
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2.6 Empirical Studies on Teaching Culture, CDA, and ICC in Language Classes
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2.6.2 Studies on Language Teaching Materials for Teaching Culture, CDA, and ICC

2.6.2 Studies on Language Teaching Materials for Teaching Culture, CDA, and ICC

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A number of textbook-based studies have examined how culture and IC are represented in ELT materials across diverse educational contexts, revealing a range of patterns and limitations. For instance, Méndez-García (2005) analysed 14 Bachillerato EFL textbooks in Spain and found that while the majority of texts featured sociocultural elements from English-speaking countries, mainly the UK and the USA, only 20 out of 174 units explicitly addressed international or intercultural themes. Comparisons were often limited to binary contrasts—typically between Spain and the UK—without exploring broader international cultural relationships.

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A similar pattern emerged in Yuen’s (2011) study of two Hong Kong junior high school textbook series, where English-speaking cultures dominated the content. Although the materials incorporated references to products, practices, perspectives, and persons, these were often confined to entertainment, food, and travel—thus neglecting deeper cultural dimensions and reinforcing superficial representations.

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Shin et al. (2011) extended the scope of textbook analysis by examining 25 EFL/ESL textbooks across several Asian countries using Kachru’s (1992) concentric circles (inner, outer, and expanding). Their findings indicated a predominant focus on inner-circle countries, with content largely oriented towards factual knowledge rather than communication. Cultural information was largely confined to surface themes such as tourism, and few tasks encouraged learners to engage critically or reflect on their own and others’ cultures.

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Further highlighting this issue, Çelik and Erbay (2013) analysed Turkish ELT textbooks using Yuen’s (2011) framework and reported a relatively balanced representation of local, target, and international cultures. However, European countries—especially Germany, Italy, and France—were overrepresented, while African cultures were entirely absent. Moreover, practices and perspectives were the least frequently included cultural elements, suggesting a tendency to prioritise concrete, visible culture over abstract, interpretive dimensions.

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This lack of depth was also observed by Gómez Rodríguez (2015a) in his analysis of Colombian university-level textbooks. He differentiated between surface and deep culture, revealing that even advanced-level materials largely excluded complex, transformative themes. The materials focused instead on static cultural representations, failing to challenge learners to engage with issues of diversity, ideology, or cultural complexity.

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In a similar vein, Sobkowiak’s (2015) analysis of Polish EFL textbooks found that while intercultural references were present, they were superficial and rarely translated into meaningful intercultural tasks. Activities did not promote mediation, compare/contrast thinking, or critical reflection, and the treatment of foreign cultures remained implicit and celebratory.

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A more nuanced picture emerged in Böcü and Razı’s (2016) study of National Geographic Learning textbooks used in Turkish university prep schools. These materials were found to include a mix of source, target, and international cultures, and the A1-level textbook maintained a reasonable balance between big C and little c cultural content. Nevertheless, big C elements such as politics and economics were missing at both proficiency levels, and geography remained the most dominant theme.

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Complementing these findings, Sadeghi and Sepahi (2017) examined Iranian EFL textbooks and reported a dominance of little c culture. Their research also highlighted teachers’ and learners’ preferences for more relatable, everyday cultural themes. Importantly, the authors called for needs-based textbook development and encouraged the use of supplementary materials to bridge the cultural gaps identified in the core content.

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Taken together, these studies point to a recurring imbalance in textbook content, with an overemphasis on surface-level, target culture themes and a significant underrepresentation of deep, critical cultural elements. While some efforts have been made to incorporate local and international perspectives, these are often limited to static and celebratory content. The findings suggest that most materials fall short of fostering CDA and ICC, both of which require learners to engage with diverse perspectives, challenge stereotypes, and reflect on their own positionalities. The reviewed research highlights the urgent need for teaching materials that integrate big C, little c, and deep culture in more balanced and intentional ways. To prepare learners for intercultural communication in a globalised world, ELT materials must move beyond tokenism and support reflective, dialogic learning experiences that develop critical cultural understanding.
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